Love, factually: Gerontologist finds the formula to a happy marriage

A gerontologist has uncovered common advice for couples walking down the aisle or decades into marriage. To capture the voice of lived experience, the study included a random national survey of nearly 400 Americans age 65 and older, asking how to find a compatible partner and other advice on love and relationships. In subsequent in-person interviews with more than 300 long-wedded individuals -- those in unions of 30, 40, 50, or more years -- the study captured more insights for overcoming common marriage troubles. The team of researchers interviewed divorced individuals, too, asking how others might avoid marital breakups.

With wedding season in full swing, America's newlyweds stand to learn from the experts: older adults whose love has endured job changes, child-rearing, economic certainty, health concerns and other life challenges.

Filling our knowledge gap on finding a mate and remaining married, Cornell gerontologist Karl Pillemer completed the Cornell Marriage Advice Project, the largest in-depth interview study ever done of people in very long unions, surveying more than 700 individuals wedded for a total of 40,000 years. The findings are detailed in Pillemer's book, "30 Lessons for Loving: Advice from the Wisest Americans on Love, Relationships, and Marriage."

To capture the voice of lived experience, Pillemer conducted a random national survey of nearly 400 Americans age 65 and older, asking how to find a compatible partner and other advice on love and relationships. In subsequent in-person interviews with more than 300 long-wedded individuals -- those in unions of 30, 40, 50, or more years -- Pillemer captured more insights for overcoming common marriage troubles. His team interviewed divorced individuals, too, asking how others might avoid marital breakups.

The average age of interviewees was 77 and included 58 percent women and 42 percent men. The average length of marriage in the sample was 44 years; the couple with the longest marriage were ages 98 and 101 and had been married 76 years. Responses were coded into the most commonly occurring recommendations, resulting in a list of the most frequently selected lessons for a successful, long-term relationship.

"Rather than focus on a small number of stories, my goal was to take advantage of the 'wisdom of crowds,' collecting the love and relationship advice of a large and varied cross-section of long-married elders in a scientifically reliable and valid way," said Pillemer.

Pillemer uncovered common advice for couples walking down the aisle or decades into marriage. The top five lessons from the elders, along with Pillemer's analysis:

Learn to communicate: "For a good marriage, the elders overwhelmingly tell us to 'talk, talk, talk.' They believe most marital problems can be solved through open communication, and conversely many whose marriages dissolved blamed lack of communication."

Get to know your partner very well before marrying: "Many of the elders I surveyed married very young; despite that fact, they recommend the opposite. They strongly advise younger people to wait to marry until they have gotten to know their partner well and have a number of shared experiences. An important part of this advice is a lesson that was endorsed in very strong terms: Never get married expecting to be able to change your partner."

Treat marriage as an unbreakable, lifelong commitment: "Rather than seeing marriage as a voluntary partnership that lasts only as long as the passion does, the elders propose a mindset in which it is a profound commitment to be respected, even if things go sour over the short term. Many struggled through dry and unhappy periods and found ways to resolve them -- giving them the reward of a fulfilling, intact marriage in later life."

Learn to work as a team: "The elders urge us to apply what we have learned from our lifelong experiences in teams -- in sports, in work, in the military -- to marriage. Concretely, this viewpoint involves seeing problems as collective to the couple, rather than the domain of one partner. Any difficulty, illness, or setback experienced by one member of the couple is the other partner's responsibility."

Chose a partner who is very similar to you: "Marriage is difficult at times for everyone, the elders assert, but it's much easier with someone who shares your interests, background and orientation. The most critical need for similarity is in core values regarding potentially contentious issues like child-rearing, how money should be spent and religion."

According to Pillemer, "These unique insights show the value of using rigorous survey methods to uncover the practical wisdom of older people. Although a number of general studies of elder wisdom have been conducted, no one had researched the specific advice elders have for a critical life domain like marriage. Therefore, the study points the way toward the need for future research on concrete lessons we learn over the course of our lives."

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Story Source:

The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Cornell University.

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Obese teens' brains unusually susceptible to food commercials, study finds

TV food commercials disproportionately stimulate the brains of overweight teenagers, including the regions that control pleasure, taste and -- most surprisingly -- the mouth, suggesting they mentally simulate unhealthy eating habits that make it difficult to lose weight later in life.

The most surprising finding of a new Dartmouth College study was that TV food commercials activated overweight adolescents' brain region that controls their mouths, suggesting they mentally simulate unhealthy eating habits.

Credit: Kristina Rapuano

A Dartmouth study finds that TV food commercials disproportionately stimulate the brains of overweight teen-agers, including the regions that control pleasure, taste and -- most surprisingly -- the mouth, suggesting they mentally simulate unhealthy eating habits.

The findings suggest such habits may make it difficult to lose weight later in life, and that dieting efforts should not only target the initial desire to eat tempting food, but the subsequent thinking about actually tasting and eating it -- in other words, you should picture yourself munching a salad rather than a cheeseburger.

The study appears in the journal Cerebral Cortex. The study included researchers from Dartmouth College's Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and the Norris Cotton Cancer Center at the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center and Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth.

The prevalence of food advertising and adolescent obesity has increased dramatically over the past 30 years, and research has linked the number of television shows viewed during childhood with greater risk for obesity. In particular, considerable evidence suggests that exposure to food marketing promotes eating habits that contribute to obesity.

Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, the Dartmouth researchers examined brain responses to two dozen fast food commercials and non-food commercials in overweight and healthy-weight adolescents ages 12-16. The commercials were embedded within an age-appropriate show, "The Big Bang Theory," so the participants were unaware of the study's purpose.

The results show that in all the adolescents, the brain regions involved in attention and focus (occipital lobe, precuneus, superior temporal gyri and right insula) and in processing rewards (nucleus accumbens and orbitofrontal cortex) were more strongly active while viewing food commercials than non-food commercials. Also, adolescents with higher body fat showed greater reward-related activity than healthy weight teens in the orbitofrontal cortex and in regions associated with taste perception. The most surprising finding was that the food commercials also activated the overweight adolescents' brain region that controls their mouths. This region is part of the larger sensory system that is important for observational learning.

"This finding suggests the intriguing possibility that overweight adolescents mentally simulate eating while watching food commercials," says lead author Kristina Rapuano, a graduate student in Dartmouth's Brain Imaging Lab. "These brain responses may demonstrate one factor whereby unhealthy eating behaviors become reinforced and turned into habits that potentially hamper a person's ability lose weight later in life."

Although previous studies have shown heightened brain reward responses to viewing appetizing food in general, the Dartmouth study is one of the first to extend this relationship to real world food cues -- for example, TV commercials for McDonald's and Burger King -- that adolescents encounter regularly. The brain's reward circuitry involves the release of dopamine and other neurotransmitter chemicals that give pleasure and may lead to addictive behavior.

Children and adolescents see an average of 13 food commercials per day, so it isn't surprising they show a strong reward response to food commercials. But the new findings that these heightened reward responses are coupled with bodily movements that indicate simulated eating offer a clue into a potential mechanism on how unhealthy eating habits are developed.

"Unhealthy eating is thought to involve both an initial desire to eat a tempting food, such as a piece of cake, and a motor plan to enact the behavior, or eating it," Rapuano says. "Diet intervention strategies largely focus on minimizing or inhibiting the desire to eat the tempting food, with the logic being that if one does not desire, then one won't enact. Our findings suggest a second point of intervention may be the somatomotor simulation of eating behavior that follows from the desire to eat. Interventions that target this system, either to minimize the simulation of unhealthy eating or to promote the simulation of healthy eating, may ultimately prove to be more useful than trying to suppress the desire to eat."

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The above story is based on materials provided by Dartmouth College.

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8 Facts You Might Not Know About Medical Marijuana

Marijuana as medicine is nothing new, despite the current groundswell of laws making pot legal for medical uses. Here's a quick fact file on cannabis and its medical history, makeup, and legality.

1. "Marijuana" is a Mexican term that originally was applied to low-quality tobacco.


2. The plant was cultivated in China for therapy (and recreation) over 4,700 years ago.


3. More than 20 prescription medicines containing marijuana were sold in U.S. pharmacies at the turn of the 20th century. Pot-based medications were commonly available until 1942, when cannabis was stricken from the U.S. Pharmacopeia, the official compendium of drugs considered effective. From 1937 to 1942 the federal government collected a tax of $1 per ounce for such drugs.


4. More than 20,000 studies on marijuana and its components have been published, according to the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws, an advocacy group. Of these, around 100 have looked into therapeutic value on human subjects.


5. The federal government is in the pot-growing business. Under a federal contract, the University of Mississippi in Oxford cultivates marijuana for use by researchers, who have to be cleared by the National Institute on Drug Abuse.


6. The plant has nearly 500 chemical compounds, more than 60 of which are called cannabinoids.


7. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia have legalized medical marijuana: Alaska, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington. But patients in these states face federal prosecution for using it—or for growing or possessing pot for medical purposes.


8. Federal law prohibits physicians from prescribing or otherwise actively supplying patients with the drug. But in 2002 the U.S. Supreme Court backed an appellate court ruling that physicians who discuss it with patients, or provide oral or written recommendations, are protected.

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Teen Marijuana Use Might Have Lasting Effects on Mood, Anxiety

Marijuana use among teens may trigger neurological changes in the developing brain that lead to increased anxiety and stress levels that could persist into adulthood, new animal research suggests.
Although the finding stems solely from work conducted with adolescent and adult lab rats—not yet replicated among humans—the work suggests that certain troublesome changes in levels of the key brain chemicals serotonin and norepinephrine may linger long after marijuana use ceases.
"Here, the goal was simply to understand the neurological mechanism that could be underlying the specific phenomenon of depression and anxiety observed in previous studies among adolescents chronically exposed to cannabis," explained study author Dr. Gabriella Gobbi, a psychiatric researcher at the Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre in Montreal.
"And what we found with the animals we worked with is that when those that were exposed to cannabis as adolescents became adults they had low serotonin activity, which is related to depressive behavior, and high norepinephrine levels, which is related to an increase in anxiety and stress," Gobbi continued.
"This means," she cautioned, "that cannabis exposure when young seems to cause changes in the adult brain. And these changes could perhaps be irreversible, even if you stop consuming cannabis."
The study findings were released online Dec. 5 in advance of publication in an upcoming print issue of Neurobiology of Disease.
The authors note that the main ingredient in marijuana—delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)—has previously been identified as having an impact on receptors in the brain that regulate cognition and emotion.
In addition, they point out that the adolescent brain is perhaps particularly sensitive to both drug use and related stress, given that this is the pre-adult period during which the brain and its neurochemical composition undergoes extensive reshaping and reorganizing.
To assess the role cannabis may play on adolescent brain development, for 20 days—a period characterized as "prolonged exposure"—adolescent rats were given daily injections of either a low-dose (0.2 milligrams/kilograms) or high-dose (1.0 milligrams/kilograms) of cannabis. For comparison, a group of adult rats underwent a similar regimen.
Following cannabis exposure, both the adolescent and adult groups went 20 days drug-free to allow the effects of drug withdrawal to dissipate, as well as to allow for a wide range of cognitive testing to gauge the long-term effects of cannabis exposure on task execution and mood.
The authors noted that by the conclusion of the 20-day waiting period, the previously adolescent rats were effectively adults.
The team found that chronic exposure to cannabis during adolescence does appear to provoke abnormal emotional activity into adulthood, typified by the onset of depression, poorer social interaction, heightened anxiety and increased stress.
What's more, Gobbi and her colleagues also found a drop in serotonin levels in the adult brain following either low- or high-dose adolescent ingestion and an increase in norepinephrine levels following high-dose exposure.
Rats who had already reached adulthood when chronically exposed to cannabis, however, appeared to experience far less of the detrimental emotional reactions found among adolescent rats. Indeed, adult rats, they observed, seemed to be able to readily cope with, and even overcome, most of the neurological impairments that arose as a result of cannabis exposure.
"We were a little bit surprised by our findings because we didn't expect to see such a strong effect on the adult brain from adolescent usage. It was a very significant effect," said Gobbi.
"So, in general, I think that what people should take away from this work," she advised, "is that just because it's a plant it doesn't mean that marijuana is harmless. It's a pharmacologically active drug, and it must be used with awareness."
For his part, however, Dr. Adam Bisaga, an addiction psychiatrist at New York State Psychiatric Institute, minimized the relevance of the findings.

"I think the translational value of this research is very limited insofar as what the clinical relevance to humans might be," Bisaga cautioned. "It's always very difficult to translate from animal models to humans. Yes, there is some indication that this may be of importance to humans. But most of the data with patients that I am familiar with suggests that most of these cannabis-exposure deficits are reversible. So, for the time being I'm not that impressed, although it's certainly something to further study in humans," he added.
"This is not new," he noted. "Clinicians know well that exposure to large amounts of cannabis in adolescence may produce enduring changes in emotional functioning and reactivity in vulnerable individuals, such as difficult-to-treat anxiety and depressive symptoms. What this paper does is to try to characterize more precisely the components of this syndrome using animal models of emotional reactivity."

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Academic Achievement Higher Among Most Active Kids - Vigorous Physical Activity Linked To Better Grades

Children who participate in vigorous physical activity, such as sports, perform better in school, according to a new study released today by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). The examination of activity and physical education (PE) compared to academic achievement shows the most active kids more often have better grades. The study is published in the August issue of Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise �, the official journal of ACSM.

The study was conducted to determine the effect of physical education class enrollment and overall physical activity on academic achievement. The link between activity and academic performance was most significant when kids met Healthy People 2010 (HP2010) guidelines for vigorous activity 20 minutes a day, at least three days a week. Grades were not affected among kids who were moderately active for 30 minutes at least five days a week.

Two hundred fourteen middle school-aged students participated, all of whom were randomly assigned to a PE course for either the first (August to mid-January) or second (mid-January to June) semester of the academic year. The research team measured students' physical activity in and outside school in 30-minute blocks, and compared their individual grades in core subjects, such as English, world studies, science and mathematics.

"Physical education and activity during the school day may reduce boredom and help keep kids attention in the classroom," said Dawn Podulka Coe, Ph.D., the study's lead author. "We were expecting to find that students enrolled in PE would have better grades because of the opportunity to be active during the school day. But, enrollment in PE alone did not influence grades. The students who performed better academically in this study were the most active, meaning those who participated in a sport or other vigorous activity at least three times a week."

Most of the vigorous activity was achieved outside the classroom, in sports such as soccer, football, basketball and baseball/softball. Since academic performance was favorably influenced by this level of activity, the researchers suggest incorporating vigorous activity in PE classes.

"This is a good tool for all of us-parents, teachers and researchers alike-to understand what motivates students and possibly coordinate their activity and academic needs," said Coe.

The American College of Sports Medicine is the largest sports medicine and exercise science organization in the world. More than 20,000 international, national, and regional members are dedicated to advancing and integrating scientific research to provide educational and practical applications of exercise science and sports medicine.

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise � is the official journal of the American College of Sports Medicine , and is available from Lippincott Williams & Wilkins at 1-800-638-6423. Visit ACSM online at http://www.acsm.org. The conclusions outlined in this news release are those of the researchers only, and should not be construed as an official statement of the American College of Sports Medicine.

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Study Takes Rare Look At How Materialism Develops In The Young

As Christmas approaches, many people blame advertising for stoking the desire among teenagers to own the latest and best in computers, clothes, toys, video games, jewelry, sports equipment and cosmetics.

Some groups have criticized advertisers for manipulating children to demand an endless array of consumer products, while others have decried the creeping placement of branded goods in public schools.

But despite the finger pointing, relatively little is known about how materialistic values develop in childhood and adolescence, a University of Illinois researcher says.

"Materialism has long been of interest to consumer researchers, but research has centered on adult consumers, not children or teens," says Lan Nguyen Chaplin, a professor of marketing in the U. of I. College of Business.

To get a better handle on the issue, Chaplin and co-investigator Deborah Roedder John, a professor of marketing at the University of Minnesota, looked at three age groups - 8-9 year olds (third- and fourth-graders), 12-13 year olds (seventh- and eighth-graders) and 16-18 year olds (11th- and 12th-graders).

The researchers used collages to chart the value placed on materialistic objects such as "stuffed animals," "money" and "nice sports equipment" compared with non-materialistic sentiments such as "being with "friends," "being good at sports" and "helping others," in making them happy. The researchers also asked the children open-ended questions about what made them happy.

The researchers found that materialistic values increased between 8-9 year olds and 12-13 year olds, but then dropped between the 12-13 age group and 16-18 age group.

In a second study, the researchers determined that self-esteem was a key factor in a child's level of materialism. Children with lower self-esteem valued possessions significantly more than children with higher self-esteem.

Moreover, the heightened materialistic values of early adolescents were directly related to "a severe drop in self-esteem that occurs around 12-13 years of age." By using a test that primed high self-esteem among the children, the researchers wrote that they "reversed the large drop in self-esteem experienced by early adolescents, thereby reducing the steep rise in materialism among this group."

As a result, the researchers wondered whether proposed bans on child advertising and other restrictions were the best approach to reduce overly materialistic values.

"Our results suggest that strategies aimed at influencing feelings of self-worth and self-esteem among 'tweens' (8-12 year olds) and adolescents would be effective,"

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The Effect Of Violent Video Games On Teens

Playing violent video games can make some adolescents more hostile, particularly those who are less agreeable, less conscientious and easily angered. But for others, it may offer opportunities to learn new skills and improve social networking.

In a special issue of the journal Review of General Psychology, published in June by the American Psychological Association, researchers looked at several studies that examined the potential uses of video games as a way to improve visual/spatial skills, as a health aid to help manage diabetes or pain and as a tool to complement psychotherapy. One study examined the negative effects of violent video games on some people.

"Much of the attention to video game research has been negative, focusing on potential harm related to addiction, aggression and lowered school performance," said Christopher J. Ferguson, PhD, of Texas A&M International University and guest editor of the issue. "Recent research has shown that as video games have become more popular, children in the United States and Europe are having fewer behavior problems, are less violent and score better on standardized tests. Violent video games have not created the generation of problem youth so often feared."

In contrast, one study in the special issue shows that video game violence can increase aggression in some individuals, depending on their personalities.

In his research, Patrick Markey, PhD, determined that a certain combination of personality traits can help predict which young people will be more adversely affected by violent video games. "Previous research has shown us that personality traits like psychoticism and aggressiveness intensify the negative effects of violent video games and we wanted to find out why," said Markey.

Markey used the most popular psychological model of personality traits, called the Five-Factor Model, to examine these effects. The model scientifically classifies five personality traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness.

Analysis of the model showed a "perfect storm" of traits for children who are most likely to become hostile after playing violent video games, according to Markey. Those traits are: high neuroticism (e.g., easily upset, angry, depressed, emotional, etc.), low agreeableness (e.g., little concern for others, indifferent to others feelings, cold, etc.) and low conscientiousness (e.g., break rules, don't keep promises, act without thinking, etc.).

Markey then created his own model, focusing on these three traits, and used it to help predict the effects of violent video games in a sample of 118 teenagers. Each participant played a violent or a non-violent video game and had his or her hostility levels assessed. The teenagers who were highly neurotic, less agreeable and less conscientious tended to be most adversely affected by violent video games, whereas participants who did not possess these personality characteristics were either unaffected or only slightly negatively affected by violent video games.

"These results suggest that it is the simultaneous combination of these personality traits which yield a more powerful predictor of violent video games," said Markey. "Those who are negatively affected have pre-existing dispositions, which make them susceptible to such violent media."

"Violent video games are like peanut butter," said Ferguson. "They are harmless for the vast majority of kids but are harmful to a small minority with pre-existing personality or mental health problems."

The special issue also features articles on the positives of video game play, including as a learning tool. For example:

• Video games serve a wide range of emotional, social and intellectual needs, according to a survey of 1,254 seventh and eighth graders. The study's author, Cheryl Olson, PhD, also offers tips to parents on how to minimize potential harm from video games (i.e., supervised play, asking kids why they play certain games, playing video games with their children).
• Commercial video games have been shown to help engage and treat patients, especially children, in healthcare settings, according to a research review by Pamela Kato, PhD. For example, some specially tailored video games can help patients with pain management, diabetes treatment and prevention of asthma attacks.
• Video games in mental health care settings may help young patients become more cooperative and enthusiastic about psychotherapy. T. Atilla Ceranoglu, M.D., found in his research review that video games can complement the psychological assessment of youth by evaluating cognitive skills and help clarify conflicts during the therapy process.

Source:
Audrey Hamilton
American Psychological Association

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More Young Girls Entering Puberty Early, US Study

A new study of breast development in young American girls found that more are entering puberty at age 7 and 8 than in studies done 30 years ago and the largest increase has been among white girls; however in absolute terms more black and Hispanic girls reach puberty early than whites.

You can read how lead author Dr Frank Biro, director of adolescent medicine at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, and colleagues reached these conclusions in a paper published online in Pediatrics on 9 August.

Biro told the press that it wasn't clear what was causing these girls to reach puberty earlier, but they were looking at several potential factors, including genes and environment, and how they might interact.

One of the reasons perhaps to be concerned about this trend is that previous studies have shown a link between earlier start of menarche (when a girl gets her first period) and higher risk of breast cancer.

For the study, Biro and colleagues examined data on 1,239 girls between the ages of 6 and 8 from East Harlem in New York; the greater Cincinnati metropolitan area; and the San Francisco Bay area in California.

The girls were recruited by Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Centers set up in 2003 by the National Institute of Environmental Health Science and the National Cancer Institute.

The data came from physical examinations of the girls and interviews with caregivers.

The researchers used a well-established set of guidelines for deciding onset of puberty, including a five-stage system of classifying breast development called Tanner Breast Stages.

They found that a higher proportion of girls, and white girls in particular, were developing breasts earlier at age 7 and 8 than found in studies done 10 and 30 years ago.

The results also showed that:

• 10.4% of white, 23.4% of black non-Hispanic, and 14.9% of Hispanic girls had reached breast stage 2 or higher at age 7.


• At age 8, these figures were: 18.3%, 42.9%, and 30.9%, respectively.
• The proportion of girls who had reached breast stage 2 also varied by site and BMI (body mass index), with more obese girls reaching puberty earlier.

Biro and colleagues warned that their study was not representative of all girls in the US, and they will continue to follow this population to see what happens with the girls and what other factors might affect their development.

However, if this is a real trend, it could have important implications for public and individual health.

Biro told Reuter's Health that girls who enter puberty earlier are not only at higher risk of breast cancer later in life, but also more likely to engage in risky behavior.

Girls who enter puberty earlier are psychologically younger than they look, but could be regarded as older, and be expected to behave accordingly, which could affect their mental and emotional development. Studies show that girls who enter puberty earlier are also at higher risk for depression.

Biro said that rising obesity rates could be a reason why girls are entering puberty earlier and like everyone, they should be encouraged to follow a healthy diet high in fruits and vegetables.

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Kids Need To Use More Sunscreen

A study published in the journal Pediatrics shows that most pre-adolescent children do not regularly use sunscreen, and worse, many suffer from sunburn at some point during their childhood.

Figures show that people having suffered a major sunburn incident in their childhood are at double the risk of developing a melanoma later in life, so protecting children from too much sun is something parents and carers should pay more attention to.

The study, which is entitled "Prospective Study of Sunburn and Sun Behavior Patterns During Adolescence," looked at 360 children in the Massachusetts area and found that at least 50% of them experienced sun burn before their 11th birthday. They followed up with the participants three years later and found rates of sunburn still alarmingly high; and as children grew into their teens fewer reported using sunscreen, most thought they spent more time in the sun, than as children.

At the conclusion of the study, only 25% of children used sunscreen routinely and half the children who reported using sunscreen at the beginning of the study no longer used it three years later.

Stephen Dusza, lead author and a research epidemiologist at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center.

"At the same time, there was a significant reduction in
reported sunscreen use."

Less is known about the activities of teenagers, but many, especially girls like to begin tanning - ideas are needed to promote sun protection at the beaches, after-school sites, as well as at sporting and other outdoor events.

Dusza plans to extend the study of the children into their late teens and gather more data about behaviors and fashions in regards to sun exposure.

Most participants in the study commented that they prefer the look of a tan, and thought people looked better with a tan. The number of children spending time in the sun to get a tan increased over the three year period. Dusza said :

"When you ask kids or teens about tanning, they say people look better with a tan, and tanning has a very positive association in kids of this age, so trying to get them to limit this behavior is a difficult message to get across."

Other dermatologists not involved in the study concurred with the sentiment, highlighting the need to get the message across to children and young teens that over-exposure to ultra violet light can be harmful. Something could quite easily be done to promote public awareness, much in the way that smoking has been reduced and people are generally aware of the tobacco issues. Even though, of course, there will always be those risk takers who prefer to go their own way, educating people to the risks will slowly make tanning less desirable and less fashionable.

Dr. Jonette Keri, associate professor of dermatology at the University of Miami's Miller School of Medicine said :

"This is the age group we need to make an impact on, because it gets harder to make an impact as they get into their later teen and early adult years."

The authors conclude :

"Along with educational efforts in physicians' offices and schools, further studies are required to learn how to interweave enhanced sun-protection policies in settings such as beaches, after-school sites, and sporting events frequented by preadolescences and adolescents."

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Diabetic Teenagers More Likely To Drop Out Of High School And Face Worse Job Prospects

A study in the January issue of Health Affairs has found that students in high school with diabetes are at a higher risk of not completing their secondary education and face lower wages at work. It had already been known that living with diabetes can add a huge weight of restriction to one's life because of its countless health effects, but whether or not the disease has a significant effect on success at high school or in the workplace had not before been evaluated. The study found that high school dropout rates for people with diabetes are 6% higher than for high school students without the disease. In terms of job prospects, those who are diabetic, face a loss of more than $160,000 in wages over their working life, compared to those who aren't.

According to Jason M. Fletcher, an associate professor of public health at Yale University:

"Diabetes has a marked effect on schooling and earnings early in life, yet these are relatively unexamined implications of this disease".

Fletcher and coauthor Michael R. Richards used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health as a means of analyzing the effects of diabetes among teenagers as they approach adulthood. The survey observed over 15,000 teenagers and provided distinctive insight into the economic effects the disease can have on them, as they get older.

They found that the disparity in the high school dropout rate for diabetics compared to non-diabetics - over 6 percentage points higher - is greater than the male-female and black-white differences, and is comparable to the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder dropout rate. Interestingly, teenage diabetics with parents who also suffer from the disease, were found to be 4-6% less likely to attend college.

The societal and economic implications continue as diabetics age; in their thirties they are 10% less likely to be employed, and can expect to earn $6,000 less per year - approximately $160,000 over their lifetime. This could be largely to do with the reduced education received.

Various explanations have been offered on why some of these consequences occur. Fletcher and Richards note that diabetes could alter a persons desire to enter the workforce, given their health-related condition, and that employers could be less partial to hire a diabetic with concerns of productivity in mind. A reason why diabetics might decide to stay in lower paying jobs could be fear of losing their health insurance, being classed as "job-locked" to ensure their medical needs are met.

As a disease that affects 25 million people in the US alone - costing $200 billion a year - diabetes is rampantly becoming one of the nation's toughest diseases to battle. The effects that diabetes has on teenage students and their employment prospects could end up costing society over $10 billion during their lifetime.

The authors stressed the importance of policy makers focusing on diabetes prevention for young children and the support of in-school diabetes screening. By screening at school, the number of undiagnosed diabetic children would be reduced significantly, as well as the mitigation of the consequences it can have in their later life. Research should be made on children with diabetic parents to have a better idea on how to reduce potential educational effects on them, as the authors noted "Given the unyielding rise of diabetes and obesity among the population as a whole, the potential of diabetes to strike in one generation and then have negatives effects on the next is a cause for alarm,".

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What Is Ovulation? What Is The Ovulation Calendar?

Ovulation is one part of the female menstrual cycle whereby a mature ovarian follicle (part of the ovary) discharges an egg (also known as an ovum, oocyte, or female gamete). It is during this process that the egg travels down the fallopian tube where it may be met by a sperm and become fertilized.

Ovulation is controlled by part of the brain called the hypothalamus, which sends signals that instruct the anterior lobe and pituitary gland to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The process usually occurs between the 10th and 19th day into the menstrual cycle, and this is the time where humans are most fertile.

What are the phases of ovulation?

The entire ovulation phase is actually defined by a period of elevated hormones during the menstrual cycle. The process itself can be informally divided into three phases:

1. Periovulatory(follicular phase): A layer of cells around the ovum begins to mucify (become more mucous-like) and expand, and the uterus lining begins to thicken.

2. Ovulatory(ovulation phase): Enzymes are secreted and form a hole (or stigma) that the ovum and its network of cells use to exit the follicle and eventually enter the fallopian tube. This is the period of fertility and usually lasts from 24 to 48 hours.

3. Postovulatory(luteal phase): A hormone called LH or luteinizing hormone is secreted. A fertilized egg will be implanted into the womb, while an unfertilized egg slowly stops producing hormones. In addition, the lining of the uterus begins to break down and prepares to exit the body during menses.

When does ovulation occur?

A woman's menstrual cycle lasts between 28 and 32 days on average. The beginning of each cycle is considered to be the first day of her menstrual period (menses). Ovulation itself generally occurs between day 10 and day 19 of the menstrual cycle, or 12 to 16 days before the next period is due.

How can ovulation be detected?

There are several indications that a woman is ovulating. During ovulation, the cervical mucus increases in volume and becomes thicker due to increased estrogen levels. It is often said that the cervical mucus resembles egg whites at a woman's most fertile point.

Ovulation may also lead to a 0.4 to 1.0 degree increase in body temperature. This is driven by the hormone progesterone that is secreted when an egg is released. Women are generally most fertile for two to three days before the temperature achieves its maximum.

A few women are actually capable of sensing ovulation in their mid-sections. It is described as being mildly achy or a pang of pain. This condition is called Mittelschmerz - from the German "middle pain" - and it may last between a few minutes and a few hours.

Finally, ovulation predictor kits are available from drug stores that are able to detect the increase in luteinizing hormone (LH) in the urine just before ovulation.

What is an ovulation calendar?

An ovulation calendar is designed to help a women predict when she will be most fertile. Several web applets exist (i.e., www.ovulation-calendar.net) that assist this process by asking questions, such as, when the beginning of the last menstrual cycle (period) was and how long the menstrual cycle generally lasts. Some also request the length of the luteal phase (the day after ovulation to the end of the monthly cycle). It is generally useful for women to record or chart menstrual information so that it is available for entering into the calendar program.

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What Is Pregnancy? How Do I Know If I Am Pregnant?

Put simply, if any of these signs and symptoms apply to you, there is a good chance you are pregnant. The first symptom is a must, the others are possibilities. In other words, if your breasts are tender but your period has come, you are not pregnant - you must have a missed period. 1. Missed period. 2. Nausea with or without vomiting. 3. Tiredness. 4. Dizziness. 5. Breast changes. 6. Breast tenderness. 6. Frequent urination.

Nausea generally affects pregnant women during the first three to four months of the pregnancy. Tiredness tends to be more acute during the first and last three months.

How do I know if I am pregnant?

If you suspect you are pregnant, you have two options towards finding out:

• See your doctor.
• Buy a home pregnancy test.

If the home pregnancy test confirms you are pregnant you should go to a doctor or midwife for further confirmation. Not only will the doctor find out whether you are pregnant, he/she will also make sure you receive proper advice and support right from the start. In the UK midwives are usually based at GP (general practitioner, primary care physician) surgeries, a midwife unit, or a local hospital.

Pregnancy is diagnosed by detecting the presence of HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) in the woman's blood or urine. GCG is a pregnancy hormone which is present in a woman as soon as she becomes pregnant, even before her period is due. The more HCG there is in the woman the higher are her chances of having a multiple pregnancy. However, this needs to be confirmed with an abdominal, or transvaginal scan. The scan can tell how many embryos there are, as well as checking where exactly in the womb the embryo is located.

What is pregnancy? The start of conception

A male sperm penetrates an egg and fertilizes it. This usually happens in the woman's fallopian tube after ovulation (the matured egg was released from one of her ovaries).

Sperm has 23 chromosomes, including one of two types of sex chromosomes - X chromosome or Y chromosome. A sperm with an X chromosome that fertilizes an egg will produce a girl, while a Y chromosome sperm will produce a boy. Each egg also has 23 chromosomes. 46 chromosomes are required to make a human. The fusion of sperm and egg makes 46.

As soon as it is fertilized, the zygote starts to divide; it continues doing so until there is a cluster of cells. After five to seven days of dividing and growing, it attaches itself to the wall of the uterus (womb) and puts out root-like veins called villi. The villi make sure the embryo is well anchored to the lining of the uterus. These villi will eventually become the placenta, which feeds and protects the embryo/fetus.

Through the placenta the embryo/fetus receives its oxygen and nutrition, and expels waste.

What is the difference between an embryo, a fetus and a zygote?

The embryo exists from the implantation of the zygote (fusion of sperm and ovum) to when all the organs are formed (around 12 weeks) when it becomes a fetus.

When the sperm and egg meet (fuse) a zygote is produced. The cells of the zygote start multiplying (dividing) many times. The zygote grows and develops in the fallopian tubes. The moment it is implanted in the wall of the uterus it becomes an embryo. The difference between a zygote and an embryo is the timing.

The embryo continues developing until most of the organs are formed - around the 12th week. When all the organs are there it becomes a fetus.

The word zygote comes from the Greek word zygotes, meaning "yoked". The Greek word zygon means "yoke". The word embryo comes from the Medieval Latin word embryo, which comes from the Greek word embryon, meaning "young animal, fruit of the womb, that which grows". The word fetus comes from the Latin word fetus, meaning "offspring, bringing forth, hatching of young".

The development or the embryo is rapid - specialized cells create the vital organs, including the bones, muscles, blood, and the nervous system.

When the embryo becomes a fetus it is about 1 inch (2.4cm) long. Most of its internal organs are formed. The external features, such as the ears, mouth, nose, and eyes are evident, while fingers and toes start to appear.

As the fetus gets bigger, so does the uterus. The fetus is surrounded by a fluid, called amniotic fluid. Just before a woman gives birth her "waters break", that water is the amniotic fluid.

The fetus lives in this fluid and swallows it constantly. An amniotic test can be carried out during the pregnancy to find out about the baby's health.

Most pregnancies last from 37 to about 42 weeks. Health care professionals calculate the delivery date 40 weeks from the date of conception (the date the sperm and egg fused). According to the National Health Service, UK, only about 1 in every 20 births actually takes place on the due date. A baby who is born before 37 weeks after conception is considered pre-term (premature).

A pregnancy has 3 trimesters

• The 1st trimester
  These are the first 13 weeks of the pregnancy. The baby develops the fastest during this period and becomes almost fully formed by the end of it. Women say this trimester is when they are most likely to feel tired, nausea, and breast tenderness.


• The 2nd trimester
  This is from the 14th to 26th week of the pregnancy. During this trimester it becomes obvious that the mother is pregnant. As well as weighing more because of the growing baby, the expanded uterus, the placenta, and the amniotic fluid, the mother lays down extra reserves of fat. The baby continues to grow and develop. During the second trimester the mother will feel the baby's movements, as will others if they place their hands on the mothers stomach - sometimes movement may be observed without touching.


• The 3rd trimester
  This is from week 27 until the baby is born. During this trimester the baby will build up fat stores, and continue growing rapidly. The baby's lungs will develop, as will his/her sense of hearing, taste and sight. The mother may experience backache and find it harder to get into the right position for a good night's sleep. The mother will also be urinating more often as the baby and everything around him/her presses against her bladder. She may also experience contractions that take place many days or weeks before the birth - they are called Braxton Hicks contractions - these are not the contractions of labor.

Antenatal care

A team of health care professionals are involved in helping the mother and baby through the 9 months of pregnancy. They include GPs, midwives, and obstetricians - they may also include nutritionists and physical therapists. Antenatal care is all about monitoring the progress of the baby and mother. In the UK there are usually about 10 antenatal appointments for a mother's first baby, and about 7 for subsequent pregnancies.

The first antenatal appointment usually takes place within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. A doctor or midwife will talk to the mother about her general health, and also find out whether there are health issues that may need additional treatment or care. The mother will also be informed about other pregnancy care services in her area, as well as any benefits she is entitled to from the state. Advice will also be ongoing regarding lifestyle and diet. The mother's bodyweight will be measured - if she is seriously over- or underweight she will be offered additional care. They will also check her blood pressure and test her urine for protein. When there is protein in the urine it could indicate a kidney problem, or even diabetes.

Ultrasound scan - this uses sound waves and produces an image of the baby inside the mother. An ultrasound scan will be offered towards the end of the first trimester. The scan can also better predict when the baby is likely to be born. The mother will also know whether she is carrying just one baby, or more. Another scan will be offered between 18 to 20 weeks - this second scan can confirm whether the baby is developing normally. In the UK, and most other countries, the mother does not have to have a scan if she does not want to.

The following tests will also be offered, the mother can refuse them, however, they may help detect possible conditions, most of them treatable, which may affect the health of the mother or the baby:

• Anemia (deficiency of red blood cells) - a mother's iron requirement increase considerably when she is pregnant. Iron is crucial for the production of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to other cells. The amount of blood in a pregnant woman can be nearly 50% higher than normal. She will need more iron to make more hemoglobin. She will also need more iron for the baby and the placenta.


• Down's syndrome - the risk of having a baby with Down's syndrome increases with age. For a woman in her 20s the risk is 1 in 1,500, in her 30s 1 in 800, at 35 it is 1 in 270, at 40 it is 1 in 100, and at 45 it is 1 in 50. Screening can be done to find out whether the baby has Down's syndrome.


• Hepatitis B - infection with hepatitis B virus is a problem for the pregnant mother. The risk is not only for herself, but also for the baby as she might pass the virus to the baby. In the USA approximately 1 in every 500 to 1,000 pregnant women has hepatitis when she gives birth. The incidence could be higher because many women who are infected show no signs.


• Migraine - women who suffer from migraines should tell their doctors. A growing number of doctors are becoming aware of the effect migraines may have on pregnancy. A study found that migraine sufferers have a higher risk of stroke, heart disease, blood clots and hypertension during pregnancy.


• Gestational diabetes - a number of women develop diabetes during their pregnancy. It has very few symptoms and is most commonly diagnosed through screening during the pregnancy.


• HIV - a woman who is infected with HIV risks passing the virus on to her baby during pregnancy, during labor and delivery, and also through breastfeeding. If the infected mother takes no preventive drugs and also breastfeeds there is a 20% to 45% chance of infecting the baby. Modern drugs can effectively prevent HIV transmission from mother to baby during pregnancy, labor and delivery.


• Rubella (German measles) - the risk of being exposed to rubella during pregnancy in most developed countries is very small. However, the mother needs to know whether she is immune. If a mother becomes infected during early pregnancy it could be devastating for the baby. The risk of miscarriage would be high, and the baby could be born with multiple birth defects and developmental problems.


• Syphilis - this is a fairly easy sexually transmitted disease to cure. Syphilis can seriously harm both the mother and the baby if untreated.

Antenatal classes

These classes are aimed at helping the mother prepare for the birth. They should inform her about what to expect during labor and delivery, what pain relief and delivery options there are, how to keep herself physically fit, how to care for her infant, relaxation techniques, and what common emotions are frequently experienced by mothers during pregnancy, labor and delivery, and afterwards. In the UK and many other countries there are special antenatal classes for mothers who are carrying more than one baby.

Complications during pregnancy

The following conditions are commonly experienced by mothers during their pregnancy:

• Anemia
• Constipation
• Genital infections
• Hemorrhoids
• Hypertension (high blood pressure)
• Hypotension (low blood pressure)
• Gum disease
• Nausea and vomiting
• Urinary tract infections
• Heartburn
• Moodiness

The following are complications of pregnancy:

• Miscarriage - about 25% of all pregnancies in the UK end in miscarriage. The majority of miscarriages happen during the first trimester. Most women notice vaginal bleeding as the first indication, occasionally accompanied with abdominal pain, or backache. Many women describe the pain as similar to menstrual pains. Vaginal bleeding does not necessarily mean a miscarriage will happen.


• Ectopic pregnancy - this is when the zygote is implanted somewhere else, not in the lining of the uterus. This is a potentially fatal condition for the mother because it can cause serious internal bleeding. Symptoms may include pain at the tip of the shoulder, vaginal bleeding, pain on one side of the abdomen, pain when urinating or passing stools.


• Pre-eclampsia - this term refers to hypertension (high blood pressure) either during the pregnancy or just after delivery. The woman's blood pressure rises, there is protein in her urine, and she has edema (fluid retention). The woman's face, hands, feet, and ankles may swell. She may gain weight rapidly, have vision problems, abdominal pain and headaches. In the UK approximately 10% of pregnant women develop pre-eclampsia. Most cases are easy to treat. For some, it can be severe. Pre-eclampsia usually occurs during the third trimester. A study found that women who experience pre-eclampsia during pregnancy have more heart attacks, strokes and blood clots later in life than women without the condition.


• Placenta previa - the placenta covers part of the cervix, and sometimes all of it. The cervix is the exit from the uterus, where the baby will come through when he/she is born. Some women with placenta previa bleed. If it continues blocking the cervix the baby will have to be delivered by cesarean section. Most cases of placenta previa sort themselves out before the baby is born.


• Obstetric cholestasis - bile builds up in the blood. It is a rare condition, but can cause serious complications, such as a premature birth.


• Molar pregnancy - this is also uncommon. The sperm fertilized the egg, but the zygote does not become an embryo because of some genetic anomaly. However, the placenta continues to develop and the pregnancy hormone HCG continues to be present in the blood at a very high level. All molar pregnancies end up in miscarriage. Most cases are detected either by ultrasound or following tests after the mother reports bleeding.


• Stillbirth - a stillborn baby is one who is born after 24 weeks of pregnancy but shows no signs of life after delivery.

Steps for the best pregnancy

There are some things the mother can do to reduce risks of complications for her and her baby:

• Physical Activity - Most pregnant women should do some kind of moderate exercise. Not only does exercise help in general health and bodyweight control, it also prepares the mother for a more successful labor and delivery.
  
  What sort of exercise is done depends on the mother and how her pregnancy is progressing. Midwives and doctors should be consulted regarding any exercise program. Some exercises, such as contact sports, should be avoided. An interesting study found that pregnant mothers who did do exercise spent less time watching TV or using a computer at home, compared to pregnant mothers who did now exercise - even though most who did no exercise said they did not have time.


• Maintaining good bodyweight - a study found that babies born to obese mothers may have an increased risk of asthma. Doctors used to advise all women to gain weight during pregnancy. However, n new research says obese women should not gain weight during pregnancy.


• Stop smoking - a pregnant mother who smokes regularly significantly increases the chances of having an underweight or premature baby. A study found that women who smoke during pregnancy risk delivering aggressive kids. Another study found that mothers who smoke early in pregnancy are more likely to give birth to infants with heart defects.


• Alcohol consumption - the consumption of alcohol while pregnant can harm the baby. A study showed that pregnant women who binge drink early in their pregnancy increase the likelihood that their babies will be born with oral clefts.


• Marijuana/cannabis - both marijuana and cannabis might have harmful effects on the unborn baby. Experts are not sure what the effects might be.


• Overworking - a study found that too much work can cause pregnancy problems.


• Medications - a pregnant mother should only take medicines that her doctor has prescribed or allowed.


• Complementary medicines - an expectant mother should not assume an alternative therapy is safe just because it is natural.


• Avoid air pollution - a new study found that the growth of the fetus may be affected if the mother is exposed to air pollution. Avoiding air pollution is hard if the mother lives in a highly polluted area - however, certain strategies may help, such as opening windows on the side of the house with less pollution coming in, going to the shops, etc., at certain times of day, and avoiding certain streets.


• Some types of fish - some types of fish have high levels of mercury, especially shark, marlin, swordfish and barracuda. Tuna fish from some parts of the world may have mercury - as of June 2009 it appears that tuna from Spain is the safest. The UK Department of Health recommends a maximum intake of 2 tuna steaks or 4 medium-sized cans of tuna per week.


• Diet - a pregnant mother should follow a healthy and balanced diet that must include plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains. Several studies have shown that eating fish is good for the mother and baby. Fluid intake should be increased to at least two liters per day. Not only will fluids help get rid of toxins and waste more effectively, they will also help prevent nausea and constipation.


• Caffeine - a pregnant mother should avoid, or at least cut down, on her caffeine intake. A study found that consuming caffeine at any time during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of fetal growth restriction (low birth weight).


• Vitamins and supplements - only take what the doctor or midwife advise you to. Folic acid is usually recommended as this lowers the risk of neural tube defects (e.g. spina bifida) for the baby. In the UK the National Health Service recommends 400 micrograms of folic acid per day as soon as a woman thinks she may be pregnant (or when she begins trying for a baby). In fact, a study found that women who take folic acid for one year before they become pregnant significantly reduce the risk of premature birth. You should not take vitamin A supplements.


• Avoiding bacterial infections from food - measures need to be taken to avoid infection from salmonella or listeriosis, which could harm the baby. The following foods should be avoided by pregnant women, according to the National Health Service, UK:
  
  
  • Cheeses that have been ripened with mould, these include Brie, Camembert, and blue-veined cheese.
  
  
  • Pate. This also includes vegetable pates.
  
  
  • Undercooked ready-prepared meals.
  
  
  • Uncooked foods which are usually consumed cooked, such as steak tartar.
  
  
  • Raw eggs, mayonnaise with raw eggs.
  
  
  • Some cured meats which have not been cooked - salami, for example, may increase a pregnant woman's risk of developing toxoplasmosis, an infection that can harm the unborn baby.
  
  The pregnant mother should make sure she washes her hands before handling food, as well as washing all fruit and vegetables before consuming them. In fact, this practice is recommended for people who are not pregnant too.


• Gardening - there are infections that can be picked up from soil and some animal feces. Wearing gloves and washing hands before and after gardening helps protect the pregnant mother from becoming infected.


• Cat feces - cat feces can cause toxoplasmosis, which may affect the baby. A pregnant woman should avoid all contact with cat feces, cat litters and feces in soil.

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Many Teen Girls Experience Headache, Stomach Ache, Back Pain And Fatigue

Complaints of headache, stomach ache, back pain and morning fatigue are common among United States adolescent girls, according to an article in the August issue of The Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, a theme issue on mental health and one of the JAMA/Archives journals.

According to information in the article, symptoms such as these are commonly reported among children and adolescents, and girls are at a greater risk of having more than one of these symptoms at the same time. Chronic pain may have long-term effects and negatively affect school attendance, relationships and developmental experiences, the article states.

Reem M. Ghandour, M.P.A., of the Health Resources and Services Administration (HERSA), Rockville, Md., and colleagues investigated the prevalence, frequency and co-occurrence of headache, stomachache, backache and morning fatigue among a nationally representative sample of 8,250 girls in grades six through ten between 1997 and 1998 (representing the 10,360,601 girls nationwide in grades six through ten).

The researchers found that "Among U.S. adolescent girls, 29.1 percent experience headaches, 20.7 percent report stomachaches, 23.6 percent experience back pain, and 30.6 percent report morning fatigue at the rate of more than once a week," and that co-occurrence of more than one the symptoms is common.

The researchers also found that among girls who experienced headaches more than once a week, 53.3 percent also reported stomach pain more than once a week, and 74.3 percent reported morning fatigue more than once a week. Alcohol use, caffeine intake and smoking were strongly associated with all symptoms, while parent and teacher support appeared to protect girls from these symptoms.

"Somatic complaints of headache, stomachache, backache, and morning fatigue are common among U.S. adolescent girls," the authors write. "These findings suggest that effective clinical treatment may require comprehensive assessment of all female adolescents presenting with seemingly isolated somatic complaints to accurately identify and treat both the presenting symptom and any related conditions."

"While linkages may be drawn between selected complaints and other biological functions such as menstruation, most of these complaints seem to be associated more strongly with social, environmental, and behavioral risk factors such as perceived social support and alcohol and caffeine consumption," the researchers conclude.

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Teen Smoking And Drinking Drops, Marijuana Consumption Rises, USA

Cigarette and alcohol consumption among 8th, 10th and 12th graders (14, 16 and 18 year olds) are lower than they have ever been since certain records began in 1975, but marijuana and non-medical prescription medication usage has increased, says a new report - "Monitoring the Future" (MTF) - issued by The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Consumption of some tobacco products did not fall, such as hookahs, smokeless tobacco and small cigars, the authors added.

In a news conference today, a NIDA spokesperson explained that more children appear to be abusing marijuana than cigarettes. Although alcohol consumption has dropped, it is still the favorite drug for children of these three ages.

Monitoring The Future is a survey which is done in classrooms and paid for by NIDA; it was carried out by researchers at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

NIDA director Dr. Nora D. Volkow, said:

"That cigarette use has declined to historically low rates is welcome news, given our concerns that declines may have slowed or stalled in recent years. That said, the teen smoking rate is declining much more slowly than in years past, and we are seeing teens consume other tobacco products at high levels.

This highlights the urgency of maintaining strong prevention efforts against teen smoking and of targeting other tobacco products."

The findings for 2011 revealed that 18.7% of 12th-graders said they had smoked a cigarette during the previous four weeks, compared to 36.5% in 1997 and 21.6% in 2006. Among 8th graders, 6.1% say they are smokers, versus 21% fifteen years ago and 8.7% in 2006.

Assistant Secretary for Health, Howard K. Koh, MD, MPH, said:

"While it is good news that cigarette use has declined to historically low rates, we can and must do more to accelerate that decline. The actual decline is relatively small compared to the sharp declines we witnessed in the late nineties."

Alcohol consumption

Below are some of the results from the 2011 survey for self-reported alcohol consumption:

• 12th graders - 63.5% said they had consumed alcohol during the previous 12-month period, versus 74.8% in 1997
• 8th graders - 26.9% said they had consumed alcohol during the previous 12-month period, versus 46.8% in 1994
• Binge drinking - defined as consuming at least five drinks in one sitting at any time during the previous two weeks:
  
  - 8th graders - 6.4% said they had, compared to 8.7% in 2006
  -10th graders - 14.7% said they had, compared to 19.9% in 2006
  -12th graders - 21.6% said they had, compared to 25.4% in 2006

Marijuana usage increased

6.6% of 12th-graders say they use marijuana daily, while 36.4% say they have had it at some time during the previous twelve months - five years ago the figures stood at 5% and 31.5% respectively.

While teenage marijuana abuse grows, so does their downward perception of risk associated with the drug:

• 25.9% of high school seniors viewed occasional marijuana as a great risk, compared to 22.7% today.
• 48.9% of 8th-graders viewed occasional marijuana smoking as a great risk compared to 43.4% today.
• Among 12-graders, 11.4% said they had used K2 (also known as spice, or synthetic marijuana) during the previous twelve months. This is the first time questions regarding K2 have been included in the survey. The authors expressed "surprise" at this figure.

Gil Kerlikowske, director of National Drug Control Policy, said:

"K2 and spice are dangerous drugs that can cause serious harm. We will continue to work with the public health and safety community to respond to this emerging threat but in the meantime, parents must take action. Parents are the most powerful force in the lives of young people and we ask that all of them talk to their teens today about the serious consequences of using marijuana, K2, or spice."

Prescription drugs - non-medical use

Below are some more data regarding non-medical use of prescription and OTC medications

• In 2011, 8.1% of 12th-graders reported abusing Vicodin, an opioid painkiller, compared to 9.7% in 2009 (8.1% in 2010).
• In 2011, 5.9% of 10th-graders reported abusing Vicodin, compared to 7.7% in 2010.
• 12th-graders - Adderal 6.5%, Ritalin 2.6%. Both medications used for ADHD treatment.
• 8th graders - OTC cough medicines. Usage dropped to 2.7% in 2011, compared to 4.2% in 2006. For 12th-graders the figures were 5.3% and 6.9% respectively.

Dr. Volkow said:

"To help educate teens about the dangers of prescription drug abuse, NIDA is launching an updated prescription drug section on our teen website. Teens can go to our PEERx page to find interactive videos and other tools that help them make healthy decisions and understand the risks of abusing prescription drugs. We are also encouraging teens to provide feedback on these resources through NIDA's teen blog, Sara Bellum, Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, or email."

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Safety on the Internet

The Internet has opened up a whole new world for people of all ages. You can shop, plan a vacation, send a picture to a relative, talk with friends, and even do research for your class project. Most people agree that since the Internet has been around, it has changed our lives for the better. But unfortunately this new way of finding information and communicating comes with risks. For example, when you visit an unfamiliar neighborhood or go to a party, you think of ways to stay safe. You also need to use similar guidelines when you're using the Internet. This information guide was created to help you find reliable information, make you aware of the possible dangers when communicating on-line, and give you tips to keep you safe!

What is a web address?

If you want to start using the Internet, you will most likely use a web browser called Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. There are four major kinds of web addresses. To get to a "web site", you need a "web address". The endings give a clue as to what type of web address it is. Try to see if you can figure out what the last three letters of the web address stand for. For example:

• Web addresses that end in .gov are government web sites. Check out one of our government's websites at: girlshealth.gov
  
• Web addresses that end in .edu are websites that are connected with...you guessed it! -"educational institutions" like schools and colleges. Now you're getting the hang of it! Check out a college web site at: harvard.edu
  
• Web addresses that end in .org are usually, but not always connected with an organization. Check out youngwomenshealth.org. This is our web site! Pretty cool, huh?
  
• Web addresses that end in .com are connected with a commercial site or a company that is selling something. Check out nick.com, which is Nickelodeon's site. Bet it makes a little more sense now.

Can I trust everything that I read on the Internet?

The answer is NO! Being able to tell if something on the Internet is reliable, accurate, true or real is tough for adults and even harder for teens. There's lots of information out there. Some of it is good information but some of it is just plain bad and not true. Everyone, even adults, must first question any information they read on the Internet until they can figure out if the information is true or false. For example, there are some individuals or groups that may try to sell a product on-line, so they may use false statements to try to get people to agree with them. So you're probably wondering, how can I tell what information is okay and what isn't okay? Here are some general tips on how to tell if the web site and information is reliable:

• Web sites that end in .gov are generally reliable because they are connected with our government.
  
• Look for the name of the organization and the author of the web site and when the information was updated. Reliable web sites often have a list of references or contacts where you can find out where the information originally came from.
  
• If you are looking for facts, check out a few different web sites to compare information. If you are in doubt, double check facts at the library. This way you will know which web sites give you correct information.
  
• Ask your teachers about reliable web sites to go to for homework help. Once you find a reliable web site, you can bookmark it so you can easily find it later.
  
• Ask your health care provider about web sites to go to for reliable health information. When you get a recommendation from a professional, it most likely will be a respected web site with reliable information.
  
• Reliable web sites usually have reliable links — so when you get lucky and find a great web site, you most likely will get to know other good sites too.

What should I do when I want to begin using the Internet?

When you want to begin using the Internet to find information or to chat with or e-mail your friends, it is important that you talk to your parents first. Even if your parents don't know much about computers or the Internet, they can help you think about ways to stay safe. You can work together and agree on rules for using the Internet, such as whether it is okay to go on-line and when, what kind of Internet sites you can go to, and how to set up an e-mail account. You and your parents can set up filters, which means that some sites that contain inappropriate things like hateful or violent messages won't open on your computer.

Does it matter what on-line name I choose for myself?

Yes! You should NEVER use your real name as your on-line name. You may already know this but it is a common mistake that teens and adults make. By using your real name, anyone knows immediately who you are and with a little bit of work, they could probably find out even more about you. This is especially true in chat rooms where you can get comfortable chatting with someone and suddenly realize they know your name, age, where you live, and where you go to school.

What kind of on-line name should I choose?

You probably want your name to describe who you are but again you need to be careful about the name and words you choose. Remember when you're talking on-line to people you don't know well, some people may unfairly judge you by your on-line name. For example, if you choose a name like: hotbabe13, people will get the wrong impression of you and you most likely will get unwanted e-mails from people who are just responding to your on-line name and not to who you really are. If you can't think of an on-line name to use without describing something about yourself, try using the name of a candy bar, color, or something else that's not personal. If the name is already taken, you can try adding a few numbers, for example — Green123.

What is a profile?

When you create an on-line name or e-mail account, you can usually set up a profile to identify yourself. Talk to your parents first about whether or not you should fill out this information. A profile will ask you for information about yourself like your name, address, and hobbies. Remember that your profile is the fastest way for anyone to find out more about you. It is never a good idea to use your last name or address!

What do I do if I accidentally get to an inappropriate Web site?

If you find that you are at a site that you know is inappropriate, click the "Back" button on the top of the screen. This will bring you back to the original web site that you were viewing. If you get "pop-ups" (usually small windows with unwanted advertisements), just keep closing the windows by clicking the X button until you are back on the original screen that you were looking at. You should tell your parents what the web address was so that they can block the site from your computer. Many web browsers track web activity and create an Internet history. So, remember that your parents may be able to check what web sites you have recently looked at, and remind you not to go to any sites that are inappropriate.

What is IMing, and is it safe?

IMing is short for "Instant Messaging" which is a super fast way to e-mail someone from your computer or certain kinds of digital cell phones. IMing has its own language made up of short abbreviated words such as brb for "be right back" and lol for "laughing out loud." In order for IMing to work, you and the people you plan to IM must download the software first. The software allows you to set up an address or buddy list of the people you want to IM. Since IMing isn't as private as you might think, it's important to know how to stay safe and have fun too:

• Always ask your parents permission first, before you download IM or other software!
  
• Do not respond to IM's from people you don't know or IM's that look strange. It is possible to get unwanted IM's and similar to E-mails, IM's can contain viruses.
  
• Don't forget to sign off of Instant Messenger when you are finished- and change your password regularly. This will prevent others from using your IM account.
  
• If you receive an IM that makes you feel uncomfortable, do not respond to it. It's best to tell your parents about it too.

What is a chat room and are they safe?

Some Internet services allow you to talk with other people in a chat room, a place that you can go to and talk to more than one person at a time. Chat rooms are often organized around topics such as sports, hobbies, fan clubs. There are so many different kinds of chat rooms that it's possible to talk to people all around the world, 24 hours a day.

Before you enter a chat, be sure you have your parent's permission to do so!

Some chat rooms are considered to be safe because the topic that is being discussed is safe and because there is a moderator or chaperone who is leading the discussion. But just because a chat room has a neutral topic it doesn't guarantee that some people in the chats won't talk about other things that might make you feel uncomfortable.

Can the chat moderator make sure nothing bad happens in the chat room?

A chat moderator supervises a chat and watches over things. A moderator can kick someone out of a chat if they write something inappropriate, but the moderator can't prevent you from going to a private chat area with someone who might harm or threaten you. If you have permission to go to a chat, be careful to check out the topic of the chat. Your parents can check out the chat room first to see if it contains inappropriate conversation. Some people who go into chats may want to imagine that you are someone you are not or play out their fantasy by saying inappropriate things to you. If anyone makes you feel uncomfortable or starts asking you inappropriate questions, leave the chat immediately.

What should I know about downloading information?

It's possible to download all sorts of information, programs, and music from the Internet. After you have your parent's permission to download something, be sure that you know exactly what you are downloading, and whom the download is from, before you do it. If you don't know who is sending you the information, don't download it because it might have a virus, which can damage the computer's memory or hard drive.

• If you accidentally begin downloading something, push the "Stop" button at the top of your screen. This will stop the download from completing and will cancel the process.
  
• Make sure you have an updated version of virus protection software on your computer!

What is proper Internet etiquette?

Netiquette is the word used to describe Internet etiquette (manners), or the way that you should behave while on-line. It is important to always be considerate of others and never use bad language. Only say things on-line that you would say face-to-face with a person. Some Internet Service Providers can monitor what you say to others. If you use inappropriate language, your Internet provider may send a warning to the head of your Internet account, which usually is a parent. You could have your Internet privileges stopped by your Internet provider or your parents!

Is it okay to share my password with my best friend?

No. You should not share your password with any of your friends, even your best friend. The only people who should know your Internet or e-mail password are your parents and you! Your password is private. If you let someone else know what your password is — whether it is a total stranger or even your best friend — then they can read anything that you may want to keep private. Another person could use bad language or go to inappropriate sites under your name. You are required to enter a password for a reason — to keep yourself safe!

Is there anything that I shouldn't tell someone on the Internet?

Yes! Just like you wouldn't walk up to a stranger and tell them your name, where you live, where you go to school or give them your phone number, you shouldn't share this kind of information on-line either. It is very important that you don't e-mail or instant message anyone that you don't know or share any information that can identify you. Don't put your picture on the Internet unless you are e-mailing a friend or family member. If you are talking to a stranger, you have to be really careful because there are adults who take advantage of young people.
Remember:

• Don't give out credit card information over the Internet. Believe it or not, it's really easy for someone to steal your money this way.
  
• Don't e-mail your photo or any information that identifies YOU.
  
• Never give clues about yourself, where you live, where you work, where you hang out with your friends, where you shop etc.
  
• Never, ever share your name, address, phone number, etc.

How can I tell if someone is telling the truth?

The scary thing is that it's REALLY hard to tell if someone is telling the truth. There are people out there who misrepresent themselves and stalk young girls on the Internet. For example, someone may lie and tell you that they are much younger or even older than they are. Since you can't see them, you never know if they are telling the truth. Even if you try to check on the person by reading their on-line profile, a person can easily lie about themselves and their age. Bottom line is that some people who use the Internet are not trustworthy and could hurt you.

What do I do if someone I talk to on the Internet wants to meet in person?

Because of all the risks involved with meeting a stranger in person, it's best never to meet someone you met on-line in person. If someone that you met on-line wants to meet you in person, you should tell your parents right away.

What do I do if someone on the Internet is harassing me?

If someone on the Internet sends you lots of e-mails, follows you into chat rooms, or sends you messages even after you have stopped responding, then the person may be harassing you. First, tell your parents right away about the person. The next step is to try ignoring the person while you are on the Internet to see if they will leave you alone and get the hint. If they continue to bother you even after you have stopped responding, then you and your parents can call your Internet Service Provider and complain about the other person's behavior. You and your parents can talk to the police and you can record a complaint at the Cyber Tipline at cybertipline.com. It is not your fault if someone starts bothering you! You and your parents can stop them from harassing you and someone else.

Being safe on the Internet sounds easy but it takes time and experience to know what is okay to share with people on-line. Remember, people on-line are strangers so it's best NOT TO SHARE ANY PERSONAL INFORMATION AT ALL! NEVER meet anyone that you have met on-line even if you think that you really have gotten to know someone well. This is the biggest risk you can take and can put you in danger. Talking to your parents about what you can or cannot do on-line ahead of time is the best way to keep safe and have fun while using the Internet!

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