Scientists separate medical benefits of cannabis from 'unwanted' side effects

Scientists have found a way to separate medical benefits of cannabis from its unwanted side effects. The research was carried out in mice, but it is hoped that the breakthrough will pave the way for safe cannabis-based therapies that do not cause alterations in mood, perception or memory. Last year the team discovered how the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, known as THC, reduces tumor growth in cancer patients.

These findings reveal how the cognitive effects of THC are triggered by a pathway which is separate from some of its other effects.

Credit: © William Casey / Fotolia

Scientists at the University of East Anglia in collaboration with the University Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona have found a way to separate the medical benefits of cannabis from its unwanted side effects.

The research comes from the team that discovered how the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, known as THC, reduces tumour growth in cancer patients.

Their latest findings, published today in the journal PLOS Biology, reveal how the cognitive effects of THC are triggered by a pathway which is separate from some of its other effects.

That pathway involves both a cannabinoid receptor and a serotonin receptor. When it is blocked, THC can still exert several beneficial effects -- including pain relief -- while avoiding impairment of memory.

The research was carried out in mice, but it is hoped that the breakthrough will pave the way for safe cannabis-based therapies that do not cause alterations in mood, perception or memory.

Dr Peter McCormick, from UEA's school of Pharmacy, said: "THC, the major active component of marijuana, has broad medical use -- including for pain relief, nausea and anxiety. Our previous research has also found that it could reduce tumour size in cancer patients. However it is also known to induce numerous undesirable side effects such as memory impairment, anxiety and dependence.

"There has been a great deal of medical interest in understanding the molecular mechanisms at work in THC, so that the beneficial effects can be harnessed without the side-effects.

"THC acts through a family of cell receptors called cannabinoid receptors. Our previous research revealed which of these receptors are responsible for the anti-tumour effects of THC. This new research demonstrates how some of the drug's beneficial effects can be separated from its unwanted side effects."

The research team carried out behavioural studies in mice and investigated how pathways in their brains operate under THC. They found that the absence of a particular serotonin receptor (5HT2AR) reduced some of the effects of THC -- such as its amnesic effect, based on a standard memory test. But treatment to reduce 5HT2AR did not change other effects of THC, including pain relief.

"This research is important because it identifies a way to reduce some of what, in medical treatment, are usually thought of as THC's unwanted side effects, while maintaining several important benefits including pain reduction."

But Dr McCormick added that patients should not be tempted to self-medicate.

"Patients should not use cannabis to self-medicate, but I hope that our research will lead to a safe synthetic equivalent being available in the future."

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Story Source:

The above post is reprinted from materials provided by University of East Anglia.

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PD Patients Report Better Sleep With Rotigotine Tx

Patch form of dopamine agonist also lowered nighttime activity

SAN DIEGO -- The rotigotine patch (Neupro) appeared to objectively improve sleep quality in patients with Parkinson's disease with self-reported sleep complaints, Italian researchers said here.

Based on actigraph recordings, overall sleep efficiency was 67.8% in the week before treatment and 73.4% after 4 weeks of treatment with rotigotine patches for a statistically significant difference (P=0.017), according to Federica Provini, MD, of the University of Bologna, and colleagues.

In a poster presentation at Movement Disorders Society annual meeting, Provini's group noted that rotigotine is a dopamine agonist used for the treatment of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Previous reports have suggested rotigotine use led to improvements in subjective sleep in PD patients with sleep complaints.

What was different in this pilot study was that the researchers used the actigraph, which records what really happens during sleep, to confirm the effectiveness of the patches.

"This is the first objective demonstration of rotigotine during sleep," said co-author Pietro Cortelli, MD, also at the University of Bologna. "Our study relied on the actigraph, not on questionnaires. The patients wore the actigraph 1 week before we treated, then we had the recording done after 4 weeks of treatment with rotigotine patches."

Cortelli told MedPage Today that the authors sought to show that the patches had an impact on the patient's sleep only. "We were not trying to determine if the patches improved motor function efficacy. We did not have a placebo group. We were just measuring their sleep efficiency," he said.

The patients were assessed using the Parkinson's Disease Sleep Scale, the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and the restless leg syndrome rating scale before the treatment. Their sleep was recorded with the actigraph to provide baseline data. The actigraph used was the Mini Motionlogger Actigraph Advanced by Ambulatory Monitoring.

Twelve of the 15 patients in the study were men and the mean age of all the participants was 67. They had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease for a mean of 5 years. To be eligible for the study, the patients had to have registered sleep complaints and scored 10 or greater on the Parkinson's Disease Sleep Scale-2; a 3 or greater on the Hoehn and Yahr Score; and, prior to the study, could not have undergone treatment with rotigotine to control motor symptoms.

After 1 week without treatment, patients were treated with a 24-hour patch which was titrated over 1-4 weeks to the optimal dose to subjectively control motor symptom control. The starting patch contained 2 mg of rotigotine and the highest dose patch was 8 mg of rotigotine which was absorbed through the skin in 24 hours.

In addition to sleep efficiency, Provini told MedPage Today that there was a significant reduction in wake after sleep onset time (P=0.013). The wake after sleep onset time was 147.5 minutes in the week before using the patch and 106.5 minutes after the 1-month treatment trial, the researchers said. A longer wake after sleep onset is considered less efficient sleep quality.

The researcher also reported a reduction in the mean duration of wake episodes (P=0.005); improvement in the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale-III (P=0.018), and in the Parkinson's Disease Sleep Scale (P=0.005).

When looking at the patients who had pathological sleep efficiency pre-treatment, the authors reported a significant reduction in the nighttime activity mean (P=0.005) and activity median (P=0.04) post-treatment.

"This pilot study suggests that rotigotine subjectively improves sleep quality and [quality of life] in PD patients with self-eported sleep complaints and induces a significant reduction in nighttime activity, which could contribute to compromised sleep," the authors wrote, adding that in patients with reduced sleep efficiency, rotigotine objectively improved all sleep parameters.

Cortelli and Provini disclosed no relevant relationships with industry.

SAVED

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Not-so-guilty pleasure: Viewing cat videos boosts energy, positive emotions

If you get a warm, fuzzy feeling after watching cute cat videos online, the effect may be more profound than you think, according to research. The Internet phenomenon of watching cat videos, from Lil Bub to Grumpy Cat, does more than simply entertain; it boosts viewers' energy and positive emotions and decreases negative feelings, investigators say.

Bloomington, Ind.'s own Lil Bub is one of the more popular felines on the Internet.

Credit: Photo by Mike Bridavsky/www.lilbub.com

If you get a warm, fuzzy feeling after watching cute cat videos online, the effect may be more profound than you think.

The Internet phenomenon of watching cat videos, from Lil Bub to Grumpy Cat, does more than simply entertain; it boosts viewers' energy and positive emotions and decreases negative feelings, according to a new study by an Indiana University Media School researcher.

The study, by assistant professor Jessica Gall Myrick, surveyed almost 7,000 people about their viewing of cat videos and how it affects their moods. It was published in the latest issue of Computers in Human Behavior. Lil Bub's owner, Mike Bridavsky, who lives in Bloomington, helped distribute the survey via social media.

"Some people may think watching online cat videos isn't a serious enough topic for academic research, but the fact is that it's one of the most popular uses of the Internet today," Myrick said. "If we want to better understand the effects the Internet may have on us as individuals and on society, then researchers can't ignore Internet cats anymore.

"We all have watched a cat video online, but there is really little empirical work done on why so many of us do this, or what effects it might have on us," added Myrick, who owns a pug but no cats. "As a media researcher and online cat video viewer, I felt compelled to gather some data about this pop culture phenomenon."

Internet data show there were more than 2 million cat videos posted on YouTube in 2014, with almost 26 billion views. Cat videos had more views per video than any other category of YouTube content.

In Myrick's study, the most popular sites for viewing cat videos were Facebook, YouTube, Buzzfeed and I Can Has Cheezburger.

Among the possible effects Myrick hoped to explore: Does viewing cat videos online have the same kind of positive impact as pet therapy? And do some viewers actually feel worse after watching cat videos because they feel guilty for putting off tasks they need to tackle?

Of the participants in the study, about 36 percent described themselves as a "cat person," while about 60 percent said they liked both cats and dogs.

Participants in Myrick's study reported:

-- They were more energetic and felt more positive after watching cat-related online media than before.

-- They had fewer negative emotions, such as anxiety, annoyance and sadness, after watching cat-related online media than before.

-- They often view Internet cats at work or during studying.

-- The pleasure they got from watching cat videos outweighed any guilt they felt about procrastinating.

-- Cat owners and people with certain personality traits, such as agreeableness and shyness, were more likely to watch cat videos.

-- About 25 percent of the cat videos they watched were ones they sought out; the rest were ones they happened upon.

-- They were familiar with many so-called "celebrity cats," such as Nala Cat and Henri, Le Chat Noir.

Overall, the response to watching cat videos was largely positive.

"Even if they are watching cat videos on YouTube to procrastinate or while they should be working, the emotional pay-off may actually help people take on tough tasks afterward," Myrick said.

The results also suggest that future work could explore how online cat videos might be used as a form of low-cost pet therapy, she said.

For each participant who took the survey, Myrick donated 10 cents to Lil Bub's foundation, raising almost $700. The foundation, Lil Bub's Big Fund for the ASPCA, has raised more than $100,000 for needy animals.

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Story Source:

The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Indiana University.Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

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Journal Reference:

1. Jessica Gall Myrick. Emotion regulation, procrastination, and watching cat videos online: Who watches Internet cats, why, and to what effect? Computers in Human Behavior, 2015; 52: 168 DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2015.06.001

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Decreased social anxiety among young adults who eat fermented foods

A possible connection between fermented foods, which contain probiotics, and social anxiety symptoms, is the focus of recent study. The study is just the first in a series that the researchers have planned to continue exploring the mind-gut connection, including another examination of the data to see whether a correlation exists between fermented food intake and autism symptoms.

Natural sauerkraut is a fermented food (stock image). The researchers found that young adults who eat more fermented foods have fewer social anxiety symptoms, with the effect being greatest among those at genetic risk for social anxiety disorder as measured by neuroticism.

Credit: © Shakzu / Fotolia

Psychologists have traditionally looked to the mind to help people living with mental health issues. But a recent study led by William & Mary researchers shows that the stomach may also play a key role, suggesting that the old adage "you are what you eat" is more than a cliché.

W&M Psychology Professors Matthew Hilimire and Catherine Forestell recently joined with University of Maryland School of Social Work Assistant Professor Jordan DeVylder to investigate a possible connection between fermented foods, which contain probiotics, and social anxiety. The researchers found that young adults who eat more fermented foods have fewer social anxiety symptoms, with the effect being greatest among those at genetic risk for social anxiety disorder as measured by neuroticism.

The journal Psychiatry Research accepted the study in April for publication in August.

"It is likely that the probiotics in the fermented foods are favorably changing the environment in the gut, and changes in the gut in turn influence social anxiety," said Hilimire. "I think that it is absolutely fascinating that the microorganisms in your gut can influence your mind."

The researchers designed a questionnaire that was included in a mass testing tool administered in the university's Introduction to Psychology courses during the fall 2014 semester; about 700 students participated. The questionnaire asked students about the fermented foods over the previous 30 days; it also asked about exercise frequency and the average consumption of fruits and vegetables so that the researchers could control for healthy habits outside of fermented food intake, said Hilimire.

"The main finding was that individuals who had consumed more fermented foods had reduced social anxiety but that was qualified by an interaction by neuroticism. What that means is that that relationship was strongest amongst people that were high in neuroticism," Hilimire said.

The secondary finding was that more exercise was related to reduced social anxiety. Although the researchers were pleased to see the findings so clearly support their hypothesis, the study is just the first in a series they have planned to continue exploring the mind-gut connection, including another examination of the data to see whether a correlation exists between fermented food intake and autism symptoms, said Hilimire.

The researchers will also soon create an experimental version of the study. Without that experimental phase, the researches can't make a causative connection between eating fermented foods and reduced social anxiety.

"However, if we rely on the animal models that have come before us and the human experimental work that has come before us in other anxiety and depression studies, it does seem that there is a causative mechanism," said Hilimire. "Assuming similar findings in the experimental follow-up, what it would suggest is that you could augment more traditional therapies (like medications, psychotherapy or a combination of the two) with fermented foods -- dietary changes -- and exercise, as well."

DeVylder noted that research over the past several years has increasingly supported a close relationship between nutrition and mental health. "This study shows that young adults who are prone towards anxiety report less social anxiety if they frequently consume fermented foods with probiotics. These initial results highlight the possibility that social anxiety may be alleviated through low-risk nutritional interventions, although further research is needed to determine whether increasing probiotic consumption directly causes a reduction in social anxiety," he said.

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The above post is reprinted from materials provided by University of Maryland, Baltimore. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

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Study links PTSD to premature aging

Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder may be at greater risk for premature aging. This is according to a new study published in the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry.

Researchers found people with PTSD were more likely to have shorter telomere length - an indicator of premature aging.

Around 7-8% of the US population will experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some point in their lives.

The condition can occur after exposure to a traumatic event. A person with PTSD may experience nightmares, have flashbacks of the event, avoid places or situations that remind them of the event and suffer hyperarousal symptoms - such as nervousness and tension.

PTSD has been associated with increased risk of numerous other health problems, including insomnia, severe depression, eating disorders and substance abuse.

This latest study, conducted by researchers from the University of California-San Diego School of Medicine and the Veterans Affairs San Diego Health System, is the first of its kind to associate PTSD with a biological process like premature aging.

To reach their findings, the team conducted a comprehensive review of studies connected to early aging among individuals with PTSD dating back to 2000.

Since there is no standard definition for premature or accelerated aging, the researchers say, they looked at nonpsychiatric disorders that incorporate early aging, such as progeria syndrome and Down's syndrome, as a guide.

The team identified 64 studies that they deemed appropriate for investigation into the link between PTSD and aging. They were able to use these studies to assess how PTSD affects biomarkers of accelerated aging - such as telomere length - and how it affects onset and prevalence of age-related medical conditions and overall mortality.

PTSD linked to shorter telomere length, earlier mortality

The researchers found that, compared with individuals without PTSD, people with the condition had reduced telomere length.

Telomeres are caps on the end of each DNA strand that protect the chromosomes. Telomere length reduces with each cell replication and this is considered to be a marker of aging.

The team also found that people with PTSD were more likely to have increased levels of pro-inflammatory markers, such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), which are said to be markers of aging.

There was also a high incidence of PTSD alongside age-related conditions, the team notes, such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and dementia.

What is more, some of the studies reviewed suggested a mild-to-moderate link between PTSD and earlier mortality, which the team says is consistent with premature or accelerated aging among people with the condition.

Though the researchers say their study does not show whether PTSD is a specific cause of premature aging, they believe it highlights the need to class PTSD as more than just a mental illness.

First study author Dr. James B. Lohr, professor of psychiatry at UC-San Diego, adds:

"Early senescence, increased medical morbidity and premature mortality in PTSD have implications in health care beyond simply treating PTSD symptoms. Our findings warrant a deeper look at this phenomenon and a more integrated medical-psychiatric approach to their care."

The team stresses that further studies are needed to confirm their findings and determine the mechanisms behind the association between PTSD and premature aging.

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Eating out 'raises risk for high blood pressure'

 The first ever study to show a link between eating meals away from home and high blood pressure has been published in the American Journal of Hypertension.

The researchers believe that their findings are particularly applicable to young adults of Asian descent.

Also known as hypertension, high blood pressure is the main risk factor for cardiovascular disease-associated death.

In hypertension, the greater the force of blood pushing up against the walls of the blood vessels, the harder the heart has to pump, which can lead to heart failure and heart attack. People with hypertension are also at increased risk for kidney failure, aneurysm and stroke.

About 70 million adults and 2 million children in the US are affected by hypertension.

Previous studies have found that eating meals away from home is associated with a higher intake of calories, saturated fat and salt - eating behaviors believed to be linked with high blood pressure.

To investigate whether eating out could therefore be associated with hypertension, the researchers behind the new study surveyed 501 young adults aged 18-40 who attended university in Singapore. The surveys collected information on the students' blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), lifestyle, physical activity levels and how often they eat out.

Statistical analysis of the data showed that:

• 27.4% of the students had pre-hypertension
• 49% of the male participants and 9% of the female participants had pre-hypertension
• 38% of the students ate more than 12 meals away from home per week.

The researchers found that students with hypertension or pre-hypertension were more likely than participants without hypertension or pre-hypertension to eat out more often, have a higher BMI, have lower levels of physical activity and be current smokers.

Significantly, the study also found that eating just one extra meal out per week is associated with a 6% increase in risk for pre-hypertension.

Study is first to show association between dining out and increased hypertension risk

Study author Prof. Tazeen Jafar, from the Health Services and Systems Program at Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School Singapore, says that the study is the first to show a link between eating out and pre-hypertension and hypertension:

"While there have been studies conducted in the United States and Japan to find behaviors associated with hypertension, very few have surveyed a Southeast Asian population. Our research plugs that gap and highlights lifestyle factors associated with pre-hypertension and hypertension that are potentially modifiable, and would be applicable to young adults globally, especially those of Asian descent."

Based on the study's results, the authors suggest that clinicians should advise young adults - particularly younger male patients - to modify their eating behaviors and make them more aware of their risk for pre-hypertension. The findings should also inform policy changes, such as regulating salt and fat in eateries, the researchers say.

Next, the team will embark on a related study examining potential interventions that may prevent hypertension among young adults in Singapore.

Elsewhere on Medical News Today, we report on a series of studies by researchers at the University of Illinois that investigate the benefits of making food more porous at a microstructural level to protect against hypertension.

The Illinois team believes that making food more porous will allow more salt to be released during chewing, which should allow manufacturers to lower the overall level of salt content in their foods.

MNT also recently looked at research published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology that found Asian-Americans are at increased risk for hypertensive heart disease, ischemic heart disease and hemorrhagic stroke than non-Hispanic white Americans.

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Laughter may be the best medicine for age-related memory loss

We are all familiar with the saying, "laughter is the best medicine." And this motto may ring true when it comes to tackling age-related memory loss; a new study from Loma Linda University in California finds that humor may reduce brain damage caused by the "stress hormone" cortisol, which in turn, improves memory.

The research team, led by Dr. Gurinder Singh Bains, recently presented their findings at the Experimental Biology meeting in San Diego.

It is well known that too much stress can negatively affect health. Medical News Today recently reported on a study suggesting that stress may worsen allergies, while other research indicates that it makes the brain more susceptible to mental illness.

Past research has also shown that stress can worsen memory and learning ability in elderly individuals. This is because stress increases production of cortisol - a hormone that can cause damage to neurons in the brain.

Since it is well known that laughter can be a stress reliever, the research team wanted to determine whether humor may reduce brain damage caused by cortisol.

Watching a funny video 'reduced cortisol levels and boosted memory performance'

The researchers analyzed one group of elderly individuals who had diabetes and another group of elderly people who were healthy.

Laughter may reduce neuron damage caused by "stress hormone" cortisol, therefore improving memory in older individuals.

Both groups were required to view a 20-minute humorous video, before completing a memory test that measured their visual recognition, learning ability and memory recall.

A third group of elderly individuals were asked to complete the memory test without watching the funny video. The team then compared the results of all three groups.

Cortisol levels for all participants were recorded before and after the experiments.

The investigators found that both groups who watched the humorous video showed a significant reduction in cortisol levels, compared with the group that did not view the video.

The groups that watched the funny video also showed greater improvement in memory recall, learning ability and sight recognition, compared with those who did not watch the video. The diabetic group demonstrated the greatest improvement in both cortisol levels and memory test scores.

'Laughter may improve memory and quality of life'

Study co-author Dr. Lee Burk says these findings suggests that the less stress a person has, the better their memory performance, and humor may be the key to reducing stress levels.

"Humor reduces detrimental stress hormones like cortisol that decrease memory hippocampal neurons, lowers your blood pressure, and increases blood flow and your mood state," he explains.

"The act of laughter - or simply enjoying some humor - increases the release of endorphins and dopamine in the brain, which provides a sense of pleasure and reward."

He says that these neurochemical changes in the brain also increase "gamma wave band frequency," which can improve memory.

"So, indeed," he adds, "laughter is turning out to be not only a good medicine, but also a memory enhancer adding to our quality of life."

Dr. Bains says the team's findings may offer benefits that can be applied to wellness programs for elderly individuals, adding:

"The cognitive components - learning ability and delayed recall - become more challenging as we age and are essential to older adults for an improved quality of life: mind, body and spirit.

Although older adults have age-related memory deficits, complimentary, enjoyable and beneficial humor therapies need to be implemented for these individuals."

Laughter may not be the only way to boost memory. Medical News Today recently reported on a study suggesting that green tea may improve working memory, while other research from Johns Hopkins University in Maryland found that caffeine may boost long-term memory.

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Vitamin B may reduce risk of stroke

Researchers have uncovered evidence that suggests vitamin B supplements could help to reduce the risk of stroke, according to a study published in the journal Neurology.
Vitamin B supplements are said to be beneficial for many health issues, including stress, anxiety, depression, dementia, Alzheimer's disease and heart disease.
However, according to Xu Yuming of Zhengzhou University in Zhengzhou, China, previous studies have conflicting findings regarding the use of vitamin B supplements and stroke or heart attack.
"Some studies have even suggested that the supplements may increase the risk of these events," he adds.
In order to determine the role of vitamin B supplements in the risk of stroke, Prof. Yuming and colleagues analyzed 14 randomized clinical trials involving a total of 54,913 participants.
All studies compared use of vitamin B supplements with a placebo, or a very low dosage of the vitamin. All participants were then followed for a period of 6 months.
During this time, there were 2,471 reported strokes over all of the studies.
Results of the analysis revealed that the participants taking the vitamin B supplements had a 7% reduced risk of stroke, compared with those taking the placebo supplements or a low dosage of vitamin B.
However, the findings showed that taking vitamin B supplements did not reduce the severity of strokes or the risk of death.
The researchers found that a supplemental form of folate (vitamin B9) - a vitamin frequently found in fortified cereals - actually reduced the effect of vitamin B on the risk of stroke.
Additionally, the study showed that vitamin B12 did not have any effect on the risk of stroke.
The study authors explain that their "meta-analysis demonstrated that homocysteine-lowering therapy with B vitamin supplementation significantly reduced stroke events."
They continue:

We did not find significant benefit for reduction of stroke events in subgroup analyses according to intervention dose, reduction of homocysteine level, or baseline blood vitamin B12 concentration. Further analyses of B12 limited to folate-replete participants (with background of cereal folic acid fortification) also revealed no benefit."

However, the researchers note that the effect of vitamin B on stroke risk is dependent on many underlying aspects:
"Factors including the background of folate fortification of cereal products, follow-up time, status of absorption and response to B vitamin supplementation, the existence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) or high blood pressure (HBP), and baseline participant medication use can influence the effects of B vitamins supplementation."
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), stroke is the leading cause of death in the US, killing nearly 130,000 Americans every year.

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Exercise Helps Brain Become More Resilient To Stress

Physical exercise reorganizes the human brain so that it responds better to stress and normal brain function is less likely to be affected by anxiety, researchers from Princeton University wrote in the Journal of Neuroscience.

In an animal experiment, the authors found that when very physically active mice were exposed to a stressor - cold water - neurons in their brains that shut off excitement in the ventral hippocampus became much more active. The ventral hippocampus is a region in the brain that regulates anxiety.

This study may also resolve an inconsistency in research regarding the effect exercise has on the brain - namely that physical activity lowers anxiety while at the same time encouraging the growth of new neurons in the ventral hippocampus.

Exercise should, in theory, lead to more anxiety, not less, because these young neurons are typically more excitable than their older equivalents. However, this study found that physical activity also enhances the mechanisms that stop these neurons from firing.

Senior author, Elizabeth Gould, Princeton's Dorman T. Warren Professor of Psychology, explained that the effect physical exercise might have on the ventral hippocampus specifically has not been explored deeply. In this study, the team was able to isolate brain cells and regions that play key roles in the regulation of anxiety. They believe their findings may help researchers better understand and treat anxiety disorders.

From an evolutionary perspective, the study also showed how the brain can be surprisingly adaptive, tailoring its own processes to an organism's surroundings and lifestyle. Less physically fit creatures, for example, may benefit from a higher likelihood of anxious behavior. Gould said "Anxiety often manifests itself in avoidant behavior and avoiding potentially dangerous situations would increase the likelihood of survival, particularly for those less capable of responding with a 'fight or flight' reaction."

Professor Gould said:

"Understanding how the brain regulates anxious behavior gives us potential clues about helping people with anxiety disorders. It also tells us something about how the brain modifies itself to respond optimally to its own environment."

In this study, the mice were divided into two groups:

• The active group - all the mice had free access to a running wheel
• The sedentary group - there was no running wheel

Mice love running - give them a wheel and they will run about 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) every night. Six weeks later, the mice were exposed to brief periods of cold water.

Nearly as soon as they were exposed to the cold water (the stressor) the brains of the sedentary and active mice behaved differently:

• In the sedentary group, the cold water triggered an increase in "immediate early genes" - short-lived genes that are turned on rapidly when a neuron fires.
• In the active group these genes were not present, suggesting that their neurons did not immediately become super excited in response to the stressor.

The brain of an active mouse "showed every sign of controlling its reaction to an extent not observed in the brain of a sedentary mouse". Inhibitory neurons, which are known to keep excitable neurons in check, became much more active. Also, the neurons in the active mice's brains released more GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), a neurotransmitter that calms down neural excitement. There were higher levels of the protein that packages GABA into vesicles for release into the synapse in the active mice.

When the scientists blocked the GABA receptor that tamps down neural activity in the ventral hippocampus, the anxiety-reducing effect of physical exercise was canceled out.

In an Abstract in the journal, the researchers concluded:

"Together, these results suggest that running improves anxiety regulation by engaging local inhibitory mechanisms in the ventral hippocampus."

Exercise, even when forced, reduces anxiety and depressive symptoms

Even forced exercise reduces anxiety - physical activity helps relieve the symptoms of anxiety and depression whether you exercised because you wanted to or were forced to, researchers from the University of Colorado, Boulder, wrote in the European Journal of Neurosciences (February 2013 issue).

The authors explained that previous studies had demonstrated how exercise can help protect against stress-related disorders. However, nobody had looked into the effect forced exercise might have on anxiety. Examples of forced exercise may be seen among high school students, college and professional sportsmen and women, and military personnel.

Greenwood wondered "If exercise is forced, will it still produce mental health benefits? It's obvious that forced exercise will still produce peripheral physiological benefits. But will it produce benefits to anxiety and depression?"

The researchers designed an animal experiment using rats. They were divided into two groups, active and sedentary. The active group was further split into two, with one running whenever it wanted, and the other having to run on mechanized wheels that turned on at different speeds and for varying periods so that both active groups ended up doing the same amount of exercise.

Six weeks later the rats were exposed to a stressor and their anxiety levels were tested the following day.

They found that regardless of whether the rats were forced to run or chose to, the physically active rats were protected against stress and anxiety equally, compared to the sedentary rats.

Greenwood said "The implications are that humans who perceive exercise as being forced - perhaps including those who feel like they have to exercise for health reasons - are maybe still going to get the benefits in terms of reducing anxiety and depression.

A British study showed that regular intense physical exercise protects men from anxiety and depression for many years after they stop.

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What Are Benzodiazepines? What Are The Risks Of Benzodiazepines?

Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs used to treat anxiety, insomnia, and a range of other conditions. They are one of the most widely prescribed medications in the U.S., particularly among elderly patients.

Benzodiazepines possess sedative, hypnotic, anti-anxiety, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties.

Benzodiazepines work by enhancing the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - which is responsible for reducing the activity of neurons that cause stress and anxiety.

Short term use of these mediations are generally safe and effective. However, the long term use of benzodiazepines is very controversial, because of the potential of tolerance, dependance, and other adverse effects.

The first benzodiazepine - chlordiazepan - was accidentally developed in 1955 by Leo Sternbach.

Medical uses of benzodiazepines

• Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) - Benzodiazepines are often used in the treatment of GAD. The National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) recommends the use of benzodiazepines for short term GAD treatment for no longer than one month. SSRIs are considered to be more effective at treating long-term GAD.


• Insomnia - As Benzodiazepines can lead to dependence, they are normally only used as a short-term treatment for severe insomnia or on a "irregular/as-needed" basis.


• Seizures - Benzodiazepines are powerful anticonvulsants and are very effective at preventing prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures. The first-line hospital choices for treating seizures are either clonazepam, diazepam, or lorazepam.


• Alcohol withdrawal - The most common benzodiazepine prescribed for alcohol withdrawal is chlodiazepoxide, followed by diazepam. The drugs help alcoholics with detoxification and reduce their risk of severe alcohol withdrawal effects. A study conducted at the University of Ioannina School of Medicine in Greece found that people given benzodiazepines were 84 percent less likely to have alcohol withdrawal-related seizures compared to those given placebos


• Panic attacks - Because of their rapid anti-anxiety effects, benzodiazepines are very effective at treating anxiety associated with panic disorder. The American Psychiatric Association says that their use for initial treatment is strongly supported by many different study trials. However, UK based NICE says that long-term use of benzodiazepines for the treatment of panic disorder is not recommended.

Mechanism of benzodiazepines

The human brain contains many different neurotransmitters which are responsible for sending messages between brain cells, these messages have either "tranquilizing" or "excitatory" effects.

When someone feels overly anxious the brain becomes "excited" and over-active, tranquilizing transmitters need to quickly send messages to brain cells to slow down activity in the brain and reduce the symptoms of anxiety.

GABA is the brain's tranquilizing neurotransmitter, and billions of brain cells respond to its signals.

Benzodiazepines work by enhancing the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA. The drugs contain chemicals which add to the calming effect already produced by the human body and essentially keep the brain in a more "tranquilized" state.

What are the different types of benzodiazepines?

There are many different benzodiazepines and they all have differences in potency, speed at which they are metabolized, and "half-life" (time required for the quantity of the drug in the bloodstream to decrease to half its value), and therapeutic use.

List of Benzodiazepines:

• Alprazolam (Xanax) - FDA approved for the treatment of panic and anxiety disorders. Alprazolam is the most prescribed benzodiazepine in the U.S.


• Bromazepam (Lectopam) - Used as a short-term treatment for anxiety and to alleviate anxiety before surgery.


• Brotizolam (Lendormin) - A very potent anxiolytic, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant drug with fast onset of action. It is used to treat severe insomnia. The drug is not approved in Canada, Britain and the U.S.


• Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) - Used for the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome.


• Clonazepam (Klonopin) - A high potency sedative, anxiolytic, hypnotic, and anti-convulsant drug. Clonazepam is a long acting benzodiazepine with a half life between 20 to 50 hours. The FDA has approved the drug for treatment of epilepsy and panic disorder.


• Clorazepate (Tranxene) - A hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic drug used to treat severe insomnia and anxiety disorders.


• Clotiazepam (Clozan) - Used for short term anxiety treatment.


• Cloxazolam (Sepazon) - Prescribed to treat anxiety.


• Diazepam (Valium) - An anxiolytic, hypnotic, sedative, and anticonvulsant drug with rapid onset. It is used to treat panic attacks, insomnia, seizures, restless leg syndrome, and alcohol withdrawal. Diazepam is also used for the treatment of benzodiazepine dependence because of its low potency.


• Estazolam (ProSom) - A sedative, anxiolytic drug prescribed for short term treatment of insomnia


• Etizolam (Etilaam) - Used to treat insomnia


• Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) - Usually prescribed for short term treatment of chronicly severe insomnia. The drug is sometimes misused as a date rape drug because of its ability to cause amnesia.


• Flurazepam (Dalmane) - A sedative, anxiolytic drug used to treat mild to moderate insomnia.


• Loprazolam (Somnovit) - A sedative, anxiolytic drug used to teat moderately severe insomnia.


• Lorazepam (Ativan) - A very high-potent drug with sedative, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxation properties. It is prescribed for the short-term management of severe anxiety.


• Midazolam (Dormicum) - A high potent drug with anxiolytic, amnestic, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, skeletal muscle relaxant, and sedative properties. It is used to treat acute seizures and severe insomnia, as well as inducing sedation before surgical procedures.


• Nitrazepam (Alodorm) - A hypnotic drug used to treat severe insomnia.


• Nordazepam (Nordaz) - An anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant and sedative drug used to treat anxiety.


• Oxazepam (Seresta) - Used to treat anxiety and insomnia and control the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal.


• Temazepam (Restoril) - Approved for the short-term treatment of insomnia.

Side effects and risks associated with benzodiazepines

Side effects of benzodiazepine usage may include:

• Drowsiness
• Confusion
• Dizziness
• Trembling
• Impaired coordination
• Vision problems
• Grogginess
• Feelings of depression
• Headache

Risks
A study, published in the BMJ (British Medical Journal), identified an association between prolonged use of benzodiazepines among seniors (over 65s) and an increased risk of dementia. Long-term use of benzodiazepines can also result in physical dependence.

The withdrawal symptoms of benzodiazepines include trouble sleeping, feelings of depression and sweating.

If someone has become dependent on a benzodiazepine it is crucial that they do not suddenly stop therapy cold turkey. Stopping cold turkey can result in life threatening seizures, tremors, and muscle cramps. Therefore, it is important to taper off benzodiazepines very slowly with professional help.

Drug interactions

Before beginning treatment with a benzodiazepine it is important to tell your doctor about every medication you are on.

Some drugs, including antidepressants and oral contraceptives can cause excessive drug accumulation and increased side-effects of benzodiazepines.

In contrast, St John's wort, the antibiotic rifampicin, and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin decrease the effectiveness of benzodiazepines.

Most importantly, patients should never mix benzodiazepines with alcohol or opioids, the interaction can be life threatening.

Misuse of benzodiazepines

Abuse of Benzodiazepines is becoming a serious public health issue. According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), hospital admissions among people over the age of 12 related to the abuse of benzodiazepine drugs rose from 22,400 in 1998 to approximately 60,200 in 2008.

SAMHSA Administrator Pamela S. Hyde, J.D., said that "the misuse of benzodiazepines along with other prescription drugs is fueling the rise of treatment admissions. Prescription drug misuse is dangerous and can even be deadly.

Everyone has a role to play in helping to prevent prescription drug misuse. Simple steps such as locking up medications and proper disposal of unused medications are easy ways people can contribute to reducing the problem."

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