Oxytocin: What Is It? What Does It Do?

e in the brain, in the hypothalamus, and it is transported to, and secreted by, the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain.¹

Chemically it is known as a nonapeptide (a peptide containing nine amino acids), and biologically, as a neuropeptide. It acts both as a hormone and as a brain neurotransmitter.

The release of oxytocin by the pituitary gland acts to regulate two female reproductive functions:^1,2

• Childbirth
• Breast-feeding.

The release of the hormone during labor makes the muscles of the uterus, womb, contract - in other words, it increases uterine motility. The release of oxytocin is triggered by the widening of the cervix and vagina during labor, and this effect is in turn increased by the subsequent contractions.³

The main role of oxytocin is summed up nicely in a research paper by obstetric and gynecology specialists Navneet Magon and Sanjay Kalra:²

"It is released in large amounts during labor, and after stimulation of the nipples. It is a facilitator for childbirth and breast-feeding."

Stimulation of the nipples results in oxytocin release and milk let-down.

Other researchers sum up the reproductive importance of oxytocin by saying it "serves the continued propagation of a species," adding that through evolution its "repertoire has expanded to maintain a central role in more complicated aspects of reproductive behavior. For these reasons, we call oxytocin the great facilitator of life."¹

Oxytocin, used as a prescription drug, is also known by the brand name Pitocin (and Syntocinon, although this is no longer on the market).⁴

Doctors prescribe oxytocin to start birth contractions or strengthen them during labor. It is also used to reduce bleeding after child delivery.^4,5 The drug also has a role in the medical termination of pregnancy or during miscarriage.⁵

Oxytocin's effects on emotion

Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream to produce its classic effects on the uterus and breast milk, but it is also released into defined regions of the brain that are involved in emotional, cognitive, and social behaviors.⁶

One review of the evidence says oxytocin "has attracted intense attention" after the discovery of its "amazing variety of behavioral functions."⁶

The review, by Inga Neumann, says oxytocin has an impact on "pro-social behaviors" and emotional responses that contribute to:⁶

• Relaxation
• Trust
• Psychological stability.

However, another review notes that the hormone does not act alone in the chemistry of love, but is "just one important component of a complex neurochemical system that allows the body to adapt to highly emotive situations."⁷

Oxytocin has been the focus of research into the biology of love.

Another review has also sounded caution, calling for research to look more to the general effects than to the specific effects of oxytocin that are being interpreted.

"After all, it is rather unlikely that any widely acting hormone or neurotransmitter will be narrowly funneled to modulate complex, high-order mental processes that are specific to social cognition," say the authors of a 2013 paper.⁸

Scientific research has nonetheless uncovered brain oxytocin's specific ability to modulate social behavior, including effects on motherly care and aggression, bonding between couples, sexual behavior, social memory, and trust.⁶

Brain oxytocin also reduces stress responses, including anxiety - and these anxiolytic effects have been demonstrated in a number of species.^6,8

One of the so-called 'love hormone' studies was published in 2012, and it examined oxytocin levels in new lovers versus those in single people. It found that there were high levels of the hormone in the first stages of romantic attachment, and these were sustained for six months.⁹

Oxytocin released during sex

In both men and women, sexual intercourse stimulates the release of oxytocin, which has a role in erection and orgasm. The reason for this is not fully understood, although in women, it has been proposed that the increased uterine motility may help sperm to reach their destination.³

Some researchers believe oxytocin may play a part in the experience of sexual orgasm, proposing a correlation between the concentration of oxytocin and the intensity of orgasm.¹⁰

Behavioral effects of oxytocin

As shown in the recent developments listed here, scientists are still busy testing the behavioral effects of oxytocin and its role in human emotions.

Recent developments about oxytocin's effects on emotion

Oxytocin: the monogamy hormone? This study, published in the journal PNAS in November 2013, examined brain scans of men who had received oxytocin or placebo via a nasal spray. The oxytocin was associated with activation of the men's reward centres in their brains, and with greater feelings of attraction to their partners versus other women in photographs. This followed a very similar study in The Journal of Neuroscience in November 2012: A hormone can help keep men faithful.

High oxytocin levels "trigger oversensitivity to emotions of others." Released in January 2014, this study in Emotionfound that people receiving oxytocin nasal spray saw facial expression of emotions in others more intensely.

Oxytocin makes you feel more extroverted. This 2011 research paper in Psychopharmacology gave results from intranasal oxytocin improving self-perception in social situations, amplifying personality traits such as warmth, trust, altruism and openness.

The hormone that allows us to love may also encourage us to lie. This 2014 study found participants given oxytocin were more likely to lie for the benefit of the group.

Oxytocin as potential psychiatric therapy

The research to uncover oxytocin's "anxiolytic and pro-social influences, beneficial to relief, reproduction, and love" is what has led scientists to describe it as a one of the "most promising neuromodulator/neurotransmitter systems of the brain for psychotherapeutic intervention and treatment of numerous psychiatric illnesses, for example social phobia, autism, andpostpartum depression."⁶

In another research paper, from 2011, the conclusion reads:¹¹

"Oxytocin is of potential use in enhancing interpersonal and individual wellbeing, and might have more applications in neuropsychiatric disorders, especially those characterized by persistent fear, repetitive behavior, reduced trust and avoidance of social interactions."

Recent development on oxytocin as potential therapy

Oxytocin activates "social" brain regions in children with autism. A research study involving 17 children with autism spectrum disorders, published in December 2013, used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to see differences created by oxytocin in brain responses to social and non-social pictures. Albeit in a small study, the researchers found "oxytocin temporarily normalized brain regions responsible for the social deficits seen in children with autism."

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10 Most Common Birth Control Pill Side Effects

The oral contraceptive pill, commonly referred to as "the pill," is a form of hormonal contraception taken by approximately 12 million women in the United States each year to prevent pregnancy.¹

The pill is a highly effective method of birth control when taken correctly.¹

Each year, 8% of women experience an unintended pregnancy while taking the pill - most commonly because they forgot to take it.

However, when taken daily at the same time, only one in 100 women will experience an unintended pregnancy within the first year of pill use.¹

There are two types of contraceptive pills, both of which contain synthetic hormones estrogen and progesterone.² Combination pills contain both hormones estrogen and progesterone whereas the "mini pill" known as the progestin-only pill contains only the hormone progestin.¹

The pill can also be taken for non-contraceptive protection to treat medical conditions such as:^2,3

"The pill" is a type of hormonal contraception that is taken by around 12 million women per year in the US to prevent pregnancy.

• Regulation of menstrual periods
• Irregular periods
• Menorrhagia (heavy periods)
• Dysmenorrhea (painful periods)
• Endometriosis
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)
• Acne, hirsutism (excess hair growth) and alopecia (hair loss)
• Decreasing the risk of breast cysts, ovarian cysts, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and pregnancies in the fallopian tubes.

Oral contraceptives are also used as a method to prevent ovarian and endometrial cancers. Birth control pills do not prevent sexually transmitted diseases.^1-3

Common birth control side effects

The 10 most common side effects of oral contraceptives are:

1. Intermenstrual spotting: vaginal bleeding between your expected periods is experienced by approximately 50% of women using the pill, most commonly within the first 3 months of initiating the pill. Generally, this resolves in over 90% of women by their third pill pack. During this time of spotting, the pill is still effective as long as the pill has been taken correctly and none were missed. It is recommended that you contact your medical provider if you experience 5 or more days of bleeding while on your active pills or heavy bleeding for 3 or more days.³
2. Nausea: mild nausea when initially starting the pill can occur. However, nausea symptoms usually resolve over a short period of time. One solution is to try taking your pill with food or at bedtime. Seek medical help if the nausea is severe or persistent.³
3. Breast tenderness: birth control pills may cause your breasts to enlarge or become tender, which tends to improve after the first few weeks of starting the pill. However, if there is a presence of a lump or the pain is not going away, seek medical help. Reducing caffeine and salt intake can decrease breast tenderness, as can wearing a supportive bra.³
4. Headaches: the onset of new headaches should be brought to the attention of your medical provider.³
5. Weight gain: despite the failure of clinical studies to reveal that birth control pills cause weight fluctuations, some women do experience some fluid retention, especially in the breast and hip areas.³
6. Mood changes: if you are someone who has a history of depression, it is important that this is discussed with your medical provider - some women do experience depression or other emotional changes while taking the pill. It is important to contact your medical provider if you are experiencing mood changes during pill use.³
7. Missed periods: there are times when despite proper pill use, a period may be skipped or missed. Several factors can influence this such as outside stress, illness, travel or at times hormonal and or thyroid abnormalities. If a period is missed or is very light while on the pill, take a pregnancy test prior to taking your next pack of pills and call your medical provider if this continues.³
8. Decreased libido: the pill can affect your sex drive because of the hormones found in them. However, other outside factors may also cause a decrease in your libido. If this is persistent or bothersome, inform your medical provider.³
9. Vaginal discharge: some women may notice changes in vaginal discharge ranging from an overall increase to a decrease in vaginal lubrication with intercourse. Speak with your medical provider if you are concerned that there is the presence of an infection.
10. Visual changes with contact lenses: you should see your ophthalmologist if you are a contact lens wearer and notice some changes in vision or with lens tolerance during pill use.³

Some women experience side effects with "the pill" such as irregular periods, nausea, headaches, or weight change.

If you experience the side effects with the acronym "ACHES" (see below), contact your medical provider or visit an emergency room immediately as they may signify a serious condition.^3,4

• A: Abdominal/stomach pain
• C: Chest pain (as well as shortness of breath)
• H: Headaches, which are severe
• E: Eye problems such as blurred vision/loss of vision
• S: Swelling/aching in the legs and thighs (also redness, swelling or pain in the calf or thighs).

Birth control pills have also been associated with an increase in blood pressure, benign liver tumors, and a slight increase in the risk of developing cervical cancer.³

Precautions and risks while taking the pill

Combination pills do come with a particular risk for cardiovascular side effects such as heart attack, stroke and blood clots - which at times can be fatal. While blood clots are rare, they can occur. For women with a history of blood clots, heart attacks or stroke, it is advised that they do not take the combination birth control pill and speak with their medical provider about using an alternative method.¹

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises against the use of combination pills in women aged 35 years or older that smoke. Additional factors that increase your risk of blood clots include obesity or a family history of heart disease.¹

It is not recommended to take hormonal contraceptives if you have a personal history of liver or heart disease, uterine or breast cancer, uncontrolled blood pressure or migraines with an aura.⁴

It is important to note that combination pills with the form of synthetic progesterone called drospirenonone may have a higher risk of blood clots including deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.^1,4

You should speak with your medical provider to see what type of birth control option is best for you.

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Full moon affects not only werewolves but human sleep too

It appears there is some truth in the saying that it is harder to get a good night's sleep when the moon is full. Tests on Swiss volunteers as they spent nights in a sleep lab showed a link between moon phases and sleep patterns: sleep was more disturbed when there was a full moon.
Led by a team from the University of Basel, the researchers report in the July 25th online issue of Current Biology how they found a full moon disrupts sleep quality.
Lead author Professor Christian Cajochen, who is based at the Centre for Chronobiology at the Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Basel, and colleagues analyzed data taken from over 30 healthy volunteers of various ages as they slept in a sleep lab.
As the participants slept, their brain activity, eye movements, and hormone levels in different phases of sleep were measured.
Neither the lab researchers who took the sleep measurements nor the participants were aware that the authors were later going to do an analysis of the sleep data against moon cycles.
It was only after the lab results were produced that it was decided to compare them to moon phases.
Also, the participants could not see the moon from their beds in the sleep lab.
The analysis showed that the participants did not sleep so well when there was a full moon. This was reflected in both subjective measures (where the participants themselves said whether their night's sleep had been good or not) and the objective measures.
On nights with a full moon:

• Brain activity associated with deep sleep (during non-rapid eye movement) fell by nearly a third,
• On average it took the volunteers 5 minutes longer to fall asleep, and their sleep was 20 minutes shorter, and
• There was a drop in levels of melatonin, a protein that helps regulate sleep and wake cycles.

The authors write:
"This is the first reliable evidence that a lunar rhythm can modulate sleep structure in humans when measured under the highly controlled conditions of a circadian laboratory study protocol without time cues."
Cajochen suggests the response to moon phase that they observed, which they call the "circalunar rhythm," could be a relic of ancient times when human behavior was more heavily influenced by the moon.
It would seem that even for some of today's humans, paying attention to phases of the moon can be a lifesaver. A study published in 2011 suggests you are less likely to end up as a lion's dinner if you pay close attention to the moon; in southeastern Tanzania, that is.
There is evidence that many organisms, especially those that live in the sea, are influenced by moonlight.
However, this study finds that even without being able to see the moonlight, the body is somehow still responding to the fact it is a full moon.
It remains for other studies now to uncover the biology that explains this influence.
A large study from the Netherlands published earlier this month suggests that a good night's sleep boosts the benefits of a healthy lifestyle on the heart.

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